Romantism And Neoclassicism Essays - Romanticism, Romantic Poetry

Romantism And Neoclassicism Throughout history, the arts and literature have been a form of rationalization of the minds and thoughts of an artist or writer. The progression or regression of knowledge over a period of time can be chronicled or mapped with the use of the literature and arts of these artists. More specifically, the major shift in thinking from 18th-century Neoclassicism to 19th-century Romanticism can be seen in the works of Alexander Pope and William Wordsworth. A deliberation on the works of these two authors show the differences, if not complete opposites between the Neoclassic and Romantic concepts. The purpose of a poem can vary from poet to poet, but for the Neoclassic poet the main purpose was to educate the reader. During this time, Newton and other famous intellects were springing forth new ideas. Ideas such as explanations being formed in terms of moving particles. Pope shares this idea with the reader in "An Essay on Man" (stanza2?): "A thousand movements scarce one purpose gain". Pope's manner of writing is very straightforward. He makes firm statements instead of questionable presumptions and he does this as if he is teaching something with a purpose. This Neoclassic quality of teaching is seen in portions of his poem such as, "His knowledge measured to his state and place, his time a moment, and a point his space." (lines71-73) These uses of ideas and teaching in the poem make the poem less pleasurable for the reader to read as it allows no room for imagination and personal reflection. This is likely intentionally done by Pope as it was common in his time to write with a direct purpose rather than to please the reader. The purpose in writing for the Romantic poet is quite different from that of the Neoclassic poet. The Romantic poet wrote to please the reader rather than to educate. This can be seen in Wordsworth's poem "Ode: Intimations of Immortatlity from Recollections of Early Childhood.", especially in his use of language throughout the poem. Language such as, "The Moon doth with delight" (line12) and "Then sing, ye Birds, sing, sing a joyous song!" (Line168) It is this extensive use of vivid language that force the reader to use their imagination and visualize the events or images in the poem. They can then relate to these events or images and in turn become an active participant in reading the poem.

Castle Life Essays - Knight, Feudalism, Castle, Tournament, Nobility

Castle Life Essays - Knight, Feudalism, Castle, Tournament, Nobility Castle Life Supported by the brawn and taxes of the peasants, the feudal baron and his wife would seem to have had a comfortable life. In many ways they did, despite the lack of creature comforts and refinements. Around the 12th century, fortified manor dwellings began to give way to stone castles. Some of these, with their great outer walls and courtyard buildings, covered around 15 acres and were built for defensive warfare. Even during the hot summer months, dampness clung to the stone rooms, and the lord and his entourage spent as much time as possible outdoors. At dawn, a watchman on top of the lookout tower blasted out a note on his bugle to awaken everyone in the castle. After a small breakfast of bread and wine or beer, the nobles attended mass in the chapel at the castle. The lord then went about his business. He first may have heard the report of an estate manager (a manager of plot of land). If a discontented or badly treated serf had fled, without a doubt, the lord would order special people called retainers to bring him back. This is because serfs were bound to the lord unless they could evade him for a year and a day. The lord would also hear the petty offenses of the peasants and fine the culprits, or, he might even sentence them to a day in the pillory. Serious deeds, like poaching or murder, were legal matters for the local court or royal "circuit" court. The lady of the castle had many duties of her own. She inspected the work of her large staff of servants, and saw that her spinners, weavers, and embroiderers furnished clothes for the castle and rich robes for the clergy. She and her ladies also helped to train the pages, who were well-born boys that came to live in the castle at the age of seven years. For seven years pages were taught in religion, music, dancing, riding, hunting, and some reading, writing, and arithmetic. When they turned 14, they became squires. The lord directed the training of the squires. They spent seven years learning the practices of chivalry and, above all this, of warfare. At the age of 21, if they were worthy enough, they received the distinction of knighthood. Sometime between 9 AM and noon, a trumpet called the lord's household to the great hall for dinner. Their, they wolfed down great quantities of soup, game, birds, mutton, pork, some beef, and often venison or boar slain in the hunt. In winter, the ill-preserved meat tasted fiercely of East Indian spices, bought at enormous cost to hide the rank taste. Great, flat pieces of bread called trenchers served as plates and, after the meal, were tossed to the dogs around the table or given to the poor. Huge pies, or pasties, filled with several kinds of fowl or fish, were greatly loved. Metal, or wood cups, or leather "jacks" held cider, beer, or wine. Coffee and tea were not used in Europe until after the Middle Ages. Minstrels or jokers entertained at dinner. Hunting, games, and tournaments delighted nobles. Even the ladies and their pages rode into the field to loose falcons at game birds. Indoors, in front of the great open fire, there was chess, checkers, and backgammon. Poet-musicians, called troubadours, would often chant and sing storied accomplishments of Charlemagne, Count Roland, or Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table. Dearest to the warrior heart of the feudal lord was the tournament, an extravagant contest of arms. Visiting knights and nobles set up their pavilions near the lists, or field of contest. Over each tent, a banner fluttered to show the rank of a contestanthere a count, there a marquis or a baron. The shield of each armor-ridden warrior was emblazoned, or decorated, to identify the bearer. The first day of the tournament, or tourney, was usually devoted to single combats, in which pairs of knights rode full speed at each other with 10-foot (3-meter) lances. The tournament's climax was the melee, when companies of knights battled in adventurous mimic warfare. A tournament cost the lord a fortune for hospitality and rich prizes given to the victors by the "queen of the tournament". Tournaments had a cold and forbidding valueas practice for feudal warfare. Some battle or raid erupted almost daily, since medieval nobles settled their quarrels simply by attacking. If a lord coveted land, his couriers called his vassals to make a foray, or raid, of it. The peasants, in quilted battle coats,

The United States and World War II Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The United States and World War II - Essay Example Hence she must be engaged in frequent controversies the causes of which are essentially foreign to our concerns. Hence, it must be unwise in us to implicate ourselves, by artificial ties, in the ordinary vicissitudes of her politics, or the ordinary combinations and collisions of her friendships or enmities† (Washington). When German submarines attacked American ships during World War I (WWI), the U.S. was forced to abandon its isolationist policy in order to defend its territories. After the war, however, the US was quick to repudiate the Treaty of Versailles and declined to become a member of the League of Nations and the article from the National Bureau of Economic Research (Lozada) provided the answer. The United States was in recession before the war and, since economic activities centered on providing war needs, the economy benefited. For one, unemployment declined from 7.9% to 1.4% because most unemployed men were recruited by the military (Lozada). Meanwhile, tax income increased from 1.5% in 1915 to 18% in 1918. The US was back on its feet again and it did not need assistance from other countries. And yet, because most production in the US at the time was directed towards the provision of war supplies, when the war ended, production led to a halt. Forced to face its own distress, the country turned inward and refused to be sucked into the war again, particularly because there have been claims that the U.S. involvement in WWI was due to the â€Å"machinations of arms merchants or Wall Street bankers† (â€Å"The return of U.S. isolationism†) aiming to recover their losses. Aside from this, Germany was funding isolationist statesmen in order to ensure US neutrality in World War II (WWII). To prevent the country from engaging in another war, the Neutrality Acts of 1935 and 1936 were passed which prohibited the â€Å"sale of war material to belligerents and forbade any exports to belligerents not paid for with cash and carried in their own ships† (â€Å"The return of U.S. isolationism†). To counter the Neutrality Acts, President Frank Delano Roosevelt urged Americans to become good neighbors and to lend their arms to the British. Through this new policy, the US did not need to send in troops, but they were allowed to aid the Allied forces by lending them the arms they needed to fight against the Axis forces. Hence, it meant that the US would only be loaning previously created armaments and no soldiers would be sent out. While U.S. position was isolationist, the Democrats knew that the country would be a target of attack because it had no real allies. True enough, in just a few months after the Lend-Lease Act was passed, the attack on Pearl Harbor happened, hence, pitching the United States into another battle. Because of the long regime of isolationism policy, many soldiers were unprepared for the war. Moreover, the country did not have adequate equipments it could use to launch large scale campaigns. To address its war-time needs, the President Roosevelt created the War Production Board in 1942 ( â€Å"United States†). Because of the increase in demand for war supplies, the United States found itself earning and recovering. Unemployment has dropped. Though many were employed in the military, civilian employment rose from 46,000,000 in 1940 to 53,000,000 in 1945 ( â€Å"

Letter discussing favorite person in history Essay

Letter discussing favorite person in history - Essay Example Consequently, he warned that he was going to retaliate to violence with the appropriate force meant to instill permanent solution. His resolution prompted him to lead the end of servitude US, which was on 16Th April 1862. This expanded and implemented the policies of what most Americans currently see as their core national values in terms of liberty and equality. On April 12, 1861 at 4.30 a.m., there was commencement of civil war begun. This began after Gen. Pierre Beauregard opened fire in S. Carolina, specifically at the Charleston harbour on Fort Sumter. This bombardment persisted for approximately over 30 hours but ended with the giving in of the Fort by Robert Anderson. This led to the loosing of stars and stripes, whereas stars and bars triumphed. On April 15th, Lincoln called for over 70,000 people out of their wish join and serve in the military for ninety days with the intention of retaliating Southern challenge. Consequently, this led to the assertion of Emancipation by Lincoln in September 1862, which was after the Union Army at Battle of Antietam defeated the Confederates. He warned if by January 1, 1863 the bombardment had not came an ended, this would adversely affect Emancipation meant to be granted to Union whose intention encompassed halting servitude in all defiant states. Lincoln deemed the only way to settle it was by using appropriate and equal force. In the following weeks, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee and North Carolina, states then having many people in the southern region joined the Confederacy after pulling out from the Union. Since Lincoln was the commander in chief, he was responsible for how the war was going to be conducted. The union was saved by Lincoln’s strong presidency. His presiding over the American Civil War, established the nation as one and indivisible On January 1, 1863, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation. This was move meant to emancipate slaves that provided the most convincing illustration of

Methadone Treatment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Methadone Treatment - Essay Example As a result, there have been many advances and research into the field of psychopharmacology. One of the widely used pharmaceutical treatments on people suffering from heroin addiction is a drug known as methadone. Heroin is a synthetic version of morphine. The opium poppy plant is the base from which it is synthesized. The compound of Heroin was first synthesized in 1874. After it was synthesized, it was marketed as a non-addictive morphine substitute and often used as a cough suppressant. It was originally marketed by Bayer. After reformation in the government in regards to drug administration and regulation, the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act was passed in 1914 which moved this drug for only recreational use. Eventually, it was moved to a Schedule I drug and made illegal. Characteristics of Schedule I drugs include the fact that there is a high likelihood of abuse and they provide very little medicinal purpose. The pharmacology of heroin is what makes it a very addictive substance. Th e typical paths of administration are either through snorting or through intravenous injection. The reason that heroin has such a quick effect on the body is because it is highly lipid soluble. It binds to specific opioid receptors which induce an effect of euphoria for the user. This is caused by an excess in the secretion of dopamine and the occupation of dopamine in these opioid receptors. These receptors are located throughout the body, but in particular in the brain and spinal cord. Drug dependence occurs when people have used heroin for such a long period of time that their body has been chemically changed and they can no longer function without the drug. As a result, the withdrawal symptoms can be extremely horrible and can include: depression, anxiety, nausea, diarrhea, insomnia, etc. One of the many commonly reported adverse side effects is the feeling of crawling on the skin, which leads to lesions and scars to form from users obsessive scratching. Fatality from withdrawal is not commonly observed with this type of addiction (US Department of, 2005). One of the most commonly used drugs in the treatment of heroin addiction is Methadone. It was first synthesized in 1937 in Germany. It works by occupying the opioid receptors in the body which is able to block the effects of dopamine in the body. This opioid agonist is also a glutamate inhibitor which helps prevent the excitatory action in the central nervous system. This allows the user to come off the heroin addiction much easier. The medication is taken orally once a day and typically has an effect of between 24 and 36 hours. While methadone moves to take the place of heroin in the addiction, it is able to block many of the more harmful effects of the addiction, but does not provide that high associated with heroin. The addiction, however, becomes the same with methadone, but can sometimes take more time to come off of (Broekhuysen, 2000). Even though it has been shown that methadone is an important c omponent in the recovery process, there are many critics who believe that this is â€Å"merely substituting one addiction for another.† It is because there is large criticism regarding whether the addiction is being treated as a medical addiction. Like the idea of people selling prescription drugs illegally, many critics feel that if methadone is made too widely used, then it will become an abused drug in the trafficking industry due to

Personnel Department Effectiveness and Functions

Personnel Department Effectiveness and Functions 2.1 INTRODUCTION The effectiveness of any organization in general, is a direct function of the quality of the individuals who make up that organization. The knowledge, skills, abilities, and commitment of the members of the organization together constitute the most critical factor in the development and implementation of work plans and the delivery of products and services. Without the full commitment of its employees, an organization cannot accomplish its objectives. Consequently, the attraction, organization, development and motivation of employees which is the personnel function of management are a central responsibility at all levels of management that is from the chief executive to the first line supervisor. 2.2 WHAT IS PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT? There are many definitions of personnel management, but all basically say that it is: attracting and developing competent employees and creating the organizational conditions which result in their full utilization and encourages them to put forth their best efforts.1 In any organization, there has to be someone concerned with the welfare and performance of persons who are a part of the operation. When an individual or a team of individuals takes on this task of seeing to programs and setting policies that impact everyone associated with the company, they are engaged in the process of personnel management, sometimes referred to as human resources management, According to Franklin A., personnel management is based on careful handling of relationships among individuals at work and is the art of forecasting, acquiring, developing and maintaining competent workforce so that the organization derives maximum benefit in terms of performance and efficiency.2 Personnel Management is that part of management which is concerned with, people at work and their relationship within the organization. It can also be defined as that aspect of an organization, which is concerned with obtaining the best possible staff for the origination, looking after them so well that they will like to remain in the organization and give off their best in their jobs. It has to do with how best to use the skills and intelligence of people towards the achievement of organizational objectives.3 From the definitions quoted by various management experts in the past or present, the inference that we derive is that personnel management aims at attaining maximum efficiency and to yield maximum benefits to the organization. Two major points about personnel management are implied in this definition. First, effective personnel management must be future oriented. Support for organizational objectives now and for the foreseeable future must be provided through a steady supply of competent and capable employees. Second, effective personnel management is action oriented. The emphasis must be placed on solution of employment issues and problems to support organizational objectives and facilitate employee development and satisfaction To sum up, Personnel management aims at achieving these major steps: Analyzing the plan for future action and expansion. Estimating the quantitative and qualitative aspects of labour. Assessing the requirement of existing manpower or human resource. Formulating the plan for effective utilization of manpower, reducing under utilization or mis-utilization of manpower which is one of the most important resources. Finalizes the planning for recruitment, selection, promotion, transfer, training and development. Organizational effectivenes Basically Personnel management has certain goals and objectives to fulfill which includes; Creating a congenial and healthy environment for employees or workers to function effectively. To bring about organizational and human resource development through training, development programmes or even managerial succession planning. Selection and placement of right number of people and ensuring proper allocation of duties and responsibilities upon them. Creating better inter-personal relations, developing a sense of responsibility and responsiveness amongst workers and employees. Boosting the morale and sense of initiative amongst employees. Adopting best techniques or conceivable methods to bring best possible development of workers on work. 2.2.1 Functions of the Personnel Department A well-organized personnel department of an organization performs the following functions. Typically personnel work is concerned with: i. Manpower Planning: This is the first function of the personnel department. It has to do with the process by which a firm ensures that the required staff in terms of qualification and number is available at the right time. It involves determining personnel needs in relations to the objectives of the organization. It therefore deals with the qualification or education, skills and the appropriate number of personnel a firm should engage. It is therefore the process of assessing, predicting, or forecasting an organizations manpower needs in a relation to its plans. ii. Employment/Recruitment: After the manpower needs of the organization have been determined, the next stage is the make an attempt to employ the right caliber of personnel into the organization. This involves identifying sources of labour supply, carrying out recruitment, selection and placement into the organization. iii. Education/Training and Development: The personnel department is responsible for the training, education and the development of employees. It is the training needs have been determined, it is the responsibility of the department to design an appropriate programme by determining the method to be used, the course content, the duration and the institution or person to conduct the training. Training enables employees to adjust to new trends, improve their performance on the job and prepare them for promotion. iv. Wage and salary administration: Wage and salary Administration is one of the important functions of the personnel department. It is responsible for designing equitable and attractive wage and salary schemes for employees in an organization. It also determines how overtime payments. Bonuses and other fringe benefits are to be paid. It is also responsible for surveying the labour market and making the necessary changes and adjustments to the wage and salary structures to reflect the wages and salaries policies of the government of the day. v. Health, Safety and Welfare of Employment:- Another important function of the Personnel department is to ensure that there are measures to take care of the health, safety and welfare of its employees. It ensures these by providing first-aid facilities, good ventilation, lighting, drainage and proper working conditions. It also provides protective gadgets for employees to reduce the occurrence of accidents and injuries. Canteen, sports, transport, pension schemes, group insurance schemes and other recreational programmmes are provided for the welfare of its employees. vi. Industrial Relations: The personnel department plays an important role in maintaining a cordial and harmonium working relationship between workers and management. The term industrial relations are used to describe the relationship that exists between employers, employees (trade unions) and the government. Performance appraisal: organizing the appraisal process to identify development needs of employees. Personnel administration: record-keeping and monitoring of legislative requirements related to equal opportunities and possibly pensions and tax. Communication: providing an internal information service, perhaps in the form of staff newspapers or magazines, handouts, booklets, videos. 2.3 EMPLOYMENT PROCESS The employment process which is also referred to as the recruitment process involves a number of activities which are undertaken to engage the right caliber of personnel for an organization. It is therefore concerned with the employment and maintenance of qualified and efficient labour force. Employment therefore involves recruitment, selection and placement. The recruitment and selection process involves recruitment, interrelated activities which include the following. 2.3.1 RECRUITMENT It is the process of acquiring applicants who are available and qualified to fill positions in the organization.1 Recruitment refers to the first step in staffing, which is finding people.2 Sources of recruitment refer to the various avenues from which the personnel manager may recruit or employ labour. Recruits are obtained from a variety of sources. There source are divided into two main categories, namely internal and external sources. Pieter Grobler (page 167) Sources of Recruitment Internal Source Sources of potential candidates are many and varied, but a good starting point is to consider any internal candidates who might be suitable for the post. The exercise whereby the required manpower is obtained within the organization is the internal source. This may take the form of promoting a qualified worker to a higher position as they occur. Advantages of Internal Source There is less risk of error in selection and placement It boosts the morale of employees and encourages them it work hard It is quicker, cheaper and less risky than an outside appointment The recruit fits in with the culture of the organization; he knows â€Å"how we do things here† The individual also knows the people, systems and the business and thus the induction period will be quicker Disadvantages of Internal Source No new ideas, creativity or challenge to the culture and systems It tends to ignore qualified candidates who are not within the system A post will still need filling-the persons old post. That is he will create another vacancy The person may not be the best, qualified or most able candidate External Source Depending on management policy and the type of job involved. Management has a number of options available for obtaining people from outside the organization. These include: Educational Institutions: Organization and companies sometimes recruit fresh graduates from schools, colleges, polytechnics and the universities. Private Employment Agencies: Employers who cannot go through the process of recruitment engage consulting firms to do the recruitment for them. Labour Department: this is a public agency found in almost all regional scapitals where employees in search of employment and employers searching for employees go to register. An arrangement is then made to link the employer with the prospective employee. Advertisements: This is the most common and popular source of external recruitment where companies announce their employment opportunities through the newspapers, magazines, journals, radio and television. Unsolicited Applicant: People who are seeking for jobs sometimes apply to organizations without being aware of vacancies in those organizations. If there are vacancies, the applicant may be asked to go through the screening process. Where vacancies are not immediately available, his name will be placed on the waiting list. Employment Referrals:- Companies sometime announce job vacancies to their staff and ask them to recommend friends, relatives and neighbours who might be in need of employment and possess the required qualification and skill. Advantages of External Source It leads to the employment of people with new knowledge and ideas It leads to the employment of qualified and suitable people to fill vacant posts It promotes good will Its scope of selection is widened Disadvantages of External Sources It is costly and time consuming It may lead to low morale especially where there are qualified people within the organization The risk of making wrong selection is very high 2.3.2 JOB ANALYSIS It is the determination of the essential characteristics of a job. It is therefore a process of determining the nature of the job and the skills, knowledge, experiences and abilities of the person who is supposed to perform the job. It therefore contains information such as task performed, machines and equipment to be used, materials, products or services involved, training skills, knowledge and personal traits required of the worker. Job analysis therefore describes both the worker and the job so that there are no questions about who is doing what within the firm. Franklin A. (page 156) When undertaken carefully, job analysis could be used to; It provides the information necessary for recruitment, selection and placement of employees. It can be used to get an idea of the acceptable level of performance for each job (performance appraisal) It is used to device and implement training and development programmes It provides an opportunity to uncover and identify hazardous conditions Jobs may be analyzed in order to ensure that employees are fairly compensated The components of job analysis include. A. Job Description It specifies the duties and requirements of the job. This is a broad statement describing the purpose, scope, duties and responsibilities of a particular job. It states the title and location of the hob, grade/salary level of the job, limits of authority, number of subordinates, physical working conditions, machines, tools and equipment used, product or service produced etc. it typically portrays job content. In short, it summarizes all the basic tasks that are required to be performed on a job. A job description is what the worker does. Franklin A. (page 167) Importance of Job Description Each employee gets to know what is expected of him. It helps to avoid overlapping. It helps determine the rate of pay which is fair for the job. It helps in appraising and training employees It makes it possible for new employees to be given orientation with regards to their duties and responsibilities. It provides information from which particular hob vacancies can be advertised It guides the personnel manager in the development of job specification SELECTION This is the process by which an organization chooses from a list/pool of applicants the person who best meets the job and organizational requirements. The main objective of the selection process is to sort out those judged qualified for the job. (a) Selection Procedure i. Application Forms Applicants who reply to job advertisements are usually asked to fill in a job application form, or to send a letter giving details about themselves and their previous job experience (Curriculum Vitae or (C.V). An application form is used to find out relevant information about the applicant. It tells the organization whether or not an applicant is worthy of an interview or a test of some kind. Information usually required of candidates include; Personal data, educational background, work experience, date of birth, interests and hobbies. An applicant who is deemed suitable on this evidence becomes a candidate for interview. ii. Application Screening (Short-listing) The screening stage involves the sorting out or elimination of those applicants judged unqualified for the job. The personnel manager receives the filled application forms, and then screens them to determine those who are qualified to be invited for interview. This becomes necessary since all types of applications are received when jobs are advertised. This stage is also referred to as short-listing. It is done by marching all the applications against the employers requirements. iii. Selection Tests Selection tests are used to supplement other techniques. The tests are usually handled by fully qualified industrial psychologists. It is a practical examination to determine whether an applicant is suitable for the job. The assumption behind the administration of the tests is that a candidate who scores well in the test will more likely succeed in the job. Types of test The types of tests commonly used include:- i. Intelligence Tests: Their aim is to measure the applicants general intellectual ability. That is they are designed to measure his thinking abilities. They may test the applicants memory, ability to think quickly and logically, and skill at solving problems. ii. Aptitude Tests: These are designed to predict an individuals potential for performing a job or learning new skills. They are widely used to obtain information about such skills as mechanical ability, clerical and numerical ability. It measures a persons ability to do something given a good training. iii. Psychological tests: Psychological tests may measure a variety of characteristics such as an applicants skill in dealing with other people, ambition and motivation or emotional stability. They usually consist of questionnaires asking respondents to state their interest in or preference for jobs, leisure activities etc. Proficiency Tests: Proficiency tests are the most closely related test to an assessors objectives, because they measure ability to do the work involved iv. Medical Tests: Medical tests are carried out to determine the physical fitness of the applicant and whether he has any hidden diseases. Candidates who might have contagious diseases will be rejected. INTERVIEW Interview is a conversation or verbal interaction between two or more people for a particular purpose. Interviewing is a crucial part of the selection process because it gives the organization an opportunity to assess the applicant directly, and it gives the applicant an opportunity to learn more about the organization and whether he or she wants the job Objectives of Interview It gives the employer an opportunity to obtain information about each applicant and to assess his suitability for the job. It enables the employer to cross-check the applicants original documents or educational certificates. It enables the employer to have a critical view of the physical appearance of the applicant It also gives him an opportunity to determine the applicants level of intelligence. It provides the applicant an opportunity to know more about the organization, the job and the employees of the organization. References (Background Investigations) References provide further confidential information about the prospective employee. Prospective candidates are normally asked to submit references who can be contacted when the need arises. Such references include: schools, colleges, universities, former employers (if any) and relatives. The use of reference compels employees to be honest in supplying information about themselves to an organization. References are brief statements about a candidate made by a third party usually the candidates superior. These statements are used to confirm information supplied by applicants on application forms. Placement This is the stage where the new employee is placed on the job. He is assigned to an officer and a superior if he is a clerical worker. It is the responsibility of the superior to give the new employee in-service training where necessary and to provide a schedule of duties. Induction This may be conducted by the personnel manager and it is the process of orientating the selected applicant into his or her new working environment. It takes the form of introducing new employees to existing staff, visits to the plants and other departments, informing him/her about his duties and responsibilities, as well as the policies and objective of the organization. Induction simply means the introduction of a new employee into his or her job or organization Job Changes The post recruitment functions of the personnel manager includes transfers, promotions, demotions and termination. i. Transfers:- This occurs when employees have been assigned to another branch, department or to another job involving similar responsibilities, skills and remuneration. The transfer could be from one department to another or one station to another. It may be used to correct an error made during the recruitment process. Reasons for transfers The close down of a branch or department may call for a transfer Self request by an employee because of his inability to relate well with co-workers of lack of interest in his job or for purposes of frequent medical check-ups due to sickness. Transfer may be used as a punishment device A person may also be transferred to take up a new appointment A fall in the level of production may also necessitate the re-allocation of employees. ii. Promotion Promotion may be defined as the transfer of an employee from one job to another which involves a greater responsibility and usually a higher reward (pay). In other words, it involves a change in status and usually means appointment to a higher grade with greater and more challenging responsibilities. It is an important aspect of management because it is through promotion that a worker obtains satisfaction and shows his desire to advance and develop. Promotion Policy Many large organizations have a policy of filling senior job positions from within the organization. Others also believe in recruitment from outside the organization. Every organization should however come out with a clear policy on promotion so that employees know in advance the criteria to be used in promotion. Normally promotion is based on the following: Seniority (length of service) Practical ability (skill) General attitude and loyalty Education and qualification Personality or character Advantages of Promotion Promotion improves morale and motivation of employees in the organization. Promotion helps reduce labour-turn over in an organization It is seen as a reward for dedicated service, hard work, loyalty and obedience to rules and regulations of the organization. Fair promotions create a feeling of content among employees and retain their interest in the company. It helps employees to put in extra effort to help attain organizational objectives It improves the earning power and status of the employees Problems of promotion more qualified employees may be ignored or overlooked an employee adjudged competent when promoted may perform below expectation qualified personnel when overlooked in time of promotion may feel dejected and unrecognized. This may affect his morale and for that matter his overall performance. A worker who has a special interest in his/her job e.g. cashier in a financial institution may refuse to accept promotion. iii. Demotion It is the reduction in rank of an employee or the transfer of an employee to jobs with lower ranks backed by a reduction in salary. It therefore refers to a decrease in status as well as remuneration. Reasons For Demotion: Failure on the part of employees to live up to expectation (poor performance) Serious crime against the organization example; pilfering, fraud, leaking, organizational secrets to the advantage of competitors etc. It can also be based on indiscipline or disloyal to rules of the organization Serious or unfavourable business conditions may necessitate lay-offs and termination; some employees may accept demotion as an alternative. Problems of Demotion it leads to reduction employee status and remuneration it also creates morale problems for affected employees. Some affected employees may resign, leading to labour turn over and its associated problems, iv. LABOUR TURN OVER Labour turn over refers to the rate at which employees are leaving the business organization at a particular time and their replacement. It therefore describes the movement of workers into and out of employment of an organization in a in a given period of time It is calculated by: L x 100 A Where: L = Those leaving during the year A = Average number employed during the year or Average number on the companys payroll within that period. A high (index) labour turnover means more people leave the employment because of low morale. It could also mean a high proportion of the employment of women or scholars who have returned to college to pursue academic careers, death, pension etc. Causes of Labour Turn Over There are various causes of labour turn-over. Among them include the following: Discontentment (dissatisfaction) among employees as a result of poor working conditions, Lack of promotional avenues Poor leadership style Very long hours of work with little time for rest Unfairness and improper administration of disciplinary measures Poor wages and salaries Lack of opportunities for self advancement Boredom, wrong job assignment or lack of job satisfaction Lack of opportunity to express opinions to management and to participate in decision making. Problems of Labour Turn Over It brings about extra-expenditure, that is hiring and training of new employees Production rate is decreased and this tend to affect the volume of ales and profit margins It leads to overtime payment for extra man-hours spent on the job The money spent on training developing employees who have left goes down the drain There could be low morale for the remaining employees due to loss of old work mates and friends It takes a lot of time for workers to properly settle or fit into the system Solution To the causes of labour turnover A study or research should be conducted to identify which factors have been the cause of dissatisfaction and that have been responsible for the labour turnover. The following suggested solutions could be applied by individual companies. i. Companies should provide attractive wages and salaries to ensure that employees are above to meet their basic necessities. ii. There should also be improvement in the working conditions of workers. Protective clothes, canteen, transport, housing and medical facilities should be provided to cater for the welfare of workers. iii. There should also be opportunities for growth and development for employees, e.g study leave, provision of library facilities, promotion etc. iv. Joint consultation must be instituted to enable representatives of workers and employers meet to identify common problems and find solutions to them. 2.4 Termination of Employment Every employer has the option to terminate the employment of his employees but only on the grounds that certain conditions are meet e.g. giving of appropriate notice and payment of entitlements. Employees also have an option to resign from their present job and look for another provided they also satisfy certain conditions e.g. appropriate notice and proper handing over. There are ways by which a contract of employment may be terminated and they include: redundancy, dismissals, retirement and resignation. 2.4.1 Redundancy This is a situation where employees are asked to leave their employment because of lack of work. that is, the organization does not need their service any longer. Therefore when there is reduction in production and the workers are greater than what the organization needs, some are asked to leave employment. 2.4.2 Dismissal Dismissal is an act of sending an employee away form his employment because be is not qualified, undisciplined or is dishonest in his work. It is the permanent withdrawal of an employee from the services of a company. 2.4.3 Retirement It is the act of retiring or having stopped working after attaining a certain age. The age may either be contained in the companys policy or decision taken by the individual himself. 2.4.4 Resignation Resignation usually comes from employees. Resignation is the indication by the employee that he has ceased to be in the employment of the employer. 2.4.5 Lay Off This is a temporary withdrawal of employees from work due to shortage of raw materials, low demand for the companies products or services, or financial problems. These employees may be called back when the need arises. When conditions improve and some of the aid-off workers are invited to come back to work, it is known as recall. 2.5 EDUCATION, TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT 2.5.1 Education This is usually intended to mean basic instructions in knowledge and skills designed to enable people make the most life in general. It is thus a process of training and instructing people in schools, colleges, Polytechnics, universities etc. which is designed to give knowledge and development of skills. At the end of the course, a certificate is given to those who pass their final examination. Education is therefore more personal and broadly based. 2.5.2 Development This suggests a broader view of knowledge and skills acquisition rather than training. It is less job-oriented and career-oriented. It sees employees as adaptable resources and thus concerned with preparing individuals with skills and experience to fill challenging higher level positions in the organization. 2.5.3 Training Training is job oriented rather than personal. Training involves a series of actions aimed at preparing an individual with skills to do a particular job. It may be defined as â€Å"the systematic development of the attitudes, knowledge and skill patterns required by an individual in order to perform adequately a given task or job† Methods of Training The main methods of training include: i. Apprenticeship Training This is a method of training where the apprentice under studies his master for a number of years, learning all the basic skills involved in the profession. This type of training is given to young people who have either completed school or who have not been to school. This type of training is common and popular in professions like tailoring, dressmaking, carpentry, driving and masonry. The apprentice pays a certain amount to his master and he is not paid during the period of his/her training but given allowance as and when necessary by his/her master. ii. Supervisory Training This type of training is give to employees who have been appointed supervisors or foremen. Supervisory training involves the teaching of supervisors or foremen the skill of getting work done through others. It is therefore meant to improve on their leadership skills and qualities. It takes place in an institute in the form of seminars or workshops with discussions on leadership, morale, development, directing, and health and safety measures. iii. Executive Training Personnel in middle management and top management positions are covered under this type Personnel Department Effectiveness and Functions Personnel Department Effectiveness and Functions 2.1 INTRODUCTION The effectiveness of any organization in general, is a direct function of the quality of the individuals who make up that organization. The knowledge, skills, abilities, and commitment of the members of the organization together constitute the most critical factor in the development and implementation of work plans and the delivery of products and services. Without the full commitment of its employees, an organization cannot accomplish its objectives. Consequently, the attraction, organization, development and motivation of employees which is the personnel function of management are a central responsibility at all levels of management that is from the chief executive to the first line supervisor. 2.2 WHAT IS PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT? There are many definitions of personnel management, but all basically say that it is: attracting and developing competent employees and creating the organizational conditions which result in their full utilization and encourages them to put forth their best efforts.1 In any organization, there has to be someone concerned with the welfare and performance of persons who are a part of the operation. When an individual or a team of individuals takes on this task of seeing to programs and setting policies that impact everyone associated with the company, they are engaged in the process of personnel management, sometimes referred to as human resources management, According to Franklin A., personnel management is based on careful handling of relationships among individuals at work and is the art of forecasting, acquiring, developing and maintaining competent workforce so that the organization derives maximum benefit in terms of performance and efficiency.2 Personnel Management is that part of management which is concerned with, people at work and their relationship within the organization. It can also be defined as that aspect of an organization, which is concerned with obtaining the best possible staff for the origination, looking after them so well that they will like to remain in the organization and give off their best in their jobs. It has to do with how best to use the skills and intelligence of people towards the achievement of organizational objectives.3 From the definitions quoted by various management experts in the past or present, the inference that we derive is that personnel management aims at attaining maximum efficiency and to yield maximum benefits to the organization. Two major points about personnel management are implied in this definition. First, effective personnel management must be future oriented. Support for organizational objectives now and for the foreseeable future must be provided through a steady supply of competent and capable employees. Second, effective personnel management is action oriented. The emphasis must be placed on solution of employment issues and problems to support organizational objectives and facilitate employee development and satisfaction To sum up, Personnel management aims at achieving these major steps: Analyzing the plan for future action and expansion. Estimating the quantitative and qualitative aspects of labour. Assessing the requirement of existing manpower or human resource. Formulating the plan for effective utilization of manpower, reducing under utilization or mis-utilization of manpower which is one of the most important resources. Finalizes the planning for recruitment, selection, promotion, transfer, training and development. Organizational effectivenes Basically Personnel management has certain goals and objectives to fulfill which includes; Creating a congenial and healthy environment for employees or workers to function effectively. To bring about organizational and human resource development through training, development programmes or even managerial succession planning. Selection and placement of right number of people and ensuring proper allocation of duties and responsibilities upon them. Creating better inter-personal relations, developing a sense of responsibility and responsiveness amongst workers and employees. Boosting the morale and sense of initiative amongst employees. Adopting best techniques or conceivable methods to bring best possible development of workers on work. 2.2.1 Functions of the Personnel Department A well-organized personnel department of an organization performs the following functions. Typically personnel work is concerned with: i. Manpower Planning: This is the first function of the personnel department. It has to do with the process by which a firm ensures that the required staff in terms of qualification and number is available at the right time. It involves determining personnel needs in relations to the objectives of the organization. It therefore deals with the qualification or education, skills and the appropriate number of personnel a firm should engage. It is therefore the process of assessing, predicting, or forecasting an organizations manpower needs in a relation to its plans. ii. Employment/Recruitment: After the manpower needs of the organization have been determined, the next stage is the make an attempt to employ the right caliber of personnel into the organization. This involves identifying sources of labour supply, carrying out recruitment, selection and placement into the organization. iii. Education/Training and Development: The personnel department is responsible for the training, education and the development of employees. It is the training needs have been determined, it is the responsibility of the department to design an appropriate programme by determining the method to be used, the course content, the duration and the institution or person to conduct the training. Training enables employees to adjust to new trends, improve their performance on the job and prepare them for promotion. iv. Wage and salary administration: Wage and salary Administration is one of the important functions of the personnel department. It is responsible for designing equitable and attractive wage and salary schemes for employees in an organization. It also determines how overtime payments. Bonuses and other fringe benefits are to be paid. It is also responsible for surveying the labour market and making the necessary changes and adjustments to the wage and salary structures to reflect the wages and salaries policies of the government of the day. v. Health, Safety and Welfare of Employment:- Another important function of the Personnel department is to ensure that there are measures to take care of the health, safety and welfare of its employees. It ensures these by providing first-aid facilities, good ventilation, lighting, drainage and proper working conditions. It also provides protective gadgets for employees to reduce the occurrence of accidents and injuries. Canteen, sports, transport, pension schemes, group insurance schemes and other recreational programmmes are provided for the welfare of its employees. vi. Industrial Relations: The personnel department plays an important role in maintaining a cordial and harmonium working relationship between workers and management. The term industrial relations are used to describe the relationship that exists between employers, employees (trade unions) and the government. Performance appraisal: organizing the appraisal process to identify development needs of employees. Personnel administration: record-keeping and monitoring of legislative requirements related to equal opportunities and possibly pensions and tax. Communication: providing an internal information service, perhaps in the form of staff newspapers or magazines, handouts, booklets, videos. 2.3 EMPLOYMENT PROCESS The employment process which is also referred to as the recruitment process involves a number of activities which are undertaken to engage the right caliber of personnel for an organization. It is therefore concerned with the employment and maintenance of qualified and efficient labour force. Employment therefore involves recruitment, selection and placement. The recruitment and selection process involves recruitment, interrelated activities which include the following. 2.3.1 RECRUITMENT It is the process of acquiring applicants who are available and qualified to fill positions in the organization.1 Recruitment refers to the first step in staffing, which is finding people.2 Sources of recruitment refer to the various avenues from which the personnel manager may recruit or employ labour. Recruits are obtained from a variety of sources. There source are divided into two main categories, namely internal and external sources. Pieter Grobler (page 167) Sources of Recruitment Internal Source Sources of potential candidates are many and varied, but a good starting point is to consider any internal candidates who might be suitable for the post. The exercise whereby the required manpower is obtained within the organization is the internal source. This may take the form of promoting a qualified worker to a higher position as they occur. Advantages of Internal Source There is less risk of error in selection and placement It boosts the morale of employees and encourages them it work hard It is quicker, cheaper and less risky than an outside appointment The recruit fits in with the culture of the organization; he knows â€Å"how we do things here† The individual also knows the people, systems and the business and thus the induction period will be quicker Disadvantages of Internal Source No new ideas, creativity or challenge to the culture and systems It tends to ignore qualified candidates who are not within the system A post will still need filling-the persons old post. That is he will create another vacancy The person may not be the best, qualified or most able candidate External Source Depending on management policy and the type of job involved. Management has a number of options available for obtaining people from outside the organization. These include: Educational Institutions: Organization and companies sometimes recruit fresh graduates from schools, colleges, polytechnics and the universities. Private Employment Agencies: Employers who cannot go through the process of recruitment engage consulting firms to do the recruitment for them. Labour Department: this is a public agency found in almost all regional scapitals where employees in search of employment and employers searching for employees go to register. An arrangement is then made to link the employer with the prospective employee. Advertisements: This is the most common and popular source of external recruitment where companies announce their employment opportunities through the newspapers, magazines, journals, radio and television. Unsolicited Applicant: People who are seeking for jobs sometimes apply to organizations without being aware of vacancies in those organizations. If there are vacancies, the applicant may be asked to go through the screening process. Where vacancies are not immediately available, his name will be placed on the waiting list. Employment Referrals:- Companies sometime announce job vacancies to their staff and ask them to recommend friends, relatives and neighbours who might be in need of employment and possess the required qualification and skill. Advantages of External Source It leads to the employment of people with new knowledge and ideas It leads to the employment of qualified and suitable people to fill vacant posts It promotes good will Its scope of selection is widened Disadvantages of External Sources It is costly and time consuming It may lead to low morale especially where there are qualified people within the organization The risk of making wrong selection is very high 2.3.2 JOB ANALYSIS It is the determination of the essential characteristics of a job. It is therefore a process of determining the nature of the job and the skills, knowledge, experiences and abilities of the person who is supposed to perform the job. It therefore contains information such as task performed, machines and equipment to be used, materials, products or services involved, training skills, knowledge and personal traits required of the worker. Job analysis therefore describes both the worker and the job so that there are no questions about who is doing what within the firm. Franklin A. (page 156) When undertaken carefully, job analysis could be used to; It provides the information necessary for recruitment, selection and placement of employees. It can be used to get an idea of the acceptable level of performance for each job (performance appraisal) It is used to device and implement training and development programmes It provides an opportunity to uncover and identify hazardous conditions Jobs may be analyzed in order to ensure that employees are fairly compensated The components of job analysis include. A. Job Description It specifies the duties and requirements of the job. This is a broad statement describing the purpose, scope, duties and responsibilities of a particular job. It states the title and location of the hob, grade/salary level of the job, limits of authority, number of subordinates, physical working conditions, machines, tools and equipment used, product or service produced etc. it typically portrays job content. In short, it summarizes all the basic tasks that are required to be performed on a job. A job description is what the worker does. Franklin A. (page 167) Importance of Job Description Each employee gets to know what is expected of him. It helps to avoid overlapping. It helps determine the rate of pay which is fair for the job. It helps in appraising and training employees It makes it possible for new employees to be given orientation with regards to their duties and responsibilities. It provides information from which particular hob vacancies can be advertised It guides the personnel manager in the development of job specification SELECTION This is the process by which an organization chooses from a list/pool of applicants the person who best meets the job and organizational requirements. The main objective of the selection process is to sort out those judged qualified for the job. (a) Selection Procedure i. Application Forms Applicants who reply to job advertisements are usually asked to fill in a job application form, or to send a letter giving details about themselves and their previous job experience (Curriculum Vitae or (C.V). An application form is used to find out relevant information about the applicant. It tells the organization whether or not an applicant is worthy of an interview or a test of some kind. Information usually required of candidates include; Personal data, educational background, work experience, date of birth, interests and hobbies. An applicant who is deemed suitable on this evidence becomes a candidate for interview. ii. Application Screening (Short-listing) The screening stage involves the sorting out or elimination of those applicants judged unqualified for the job. The personnel manager receives the filled application forms, and then screens them to determine those who are qualified to be invited for interview. This becomes necessary since all types of applications are received when jobs are advertised. This stage is also referred to as short-listing. It is done by marching all the applications against the employers requirements. iii. Selection Tests Selection tests are used to supplement other techniques. The tests are usually handled by fully qualified industrial psychologists. It is a practical examination to determine whether an applicant is suitable for the job. The assumption behind the administration of the tests is that a candidate who scores well in the test will more likely succeed in the job. Types of test The types of tests commonly used include:- i. Intelligence Tests: Their aim is to measure the applicants general intellectual ability. That is they are designed to measure his thinking abilities. They may test the applicants memory, ability to think quickly and logically, and skill at solving problems. ii. Aptitude Tests: These are designed to predict an individuals potential for performing a job or learning new skills. They are widely used to obtain information about such skills as mechanical ability, clerical and numerical ability. It measures a persons ability to do something given a good training. iii. Psychological tests: Psychological tests may measure a variety of characteristics such as an applicants skill in dealing with other people, ambition and motivation or emotional stability. They usually consist of questionnaires asking respondents to state their interest in or preference for jobs, leisure activities etc. Proficiency Tests: Proficiency tests are the most closely related test to an assessors objectives, because they measure ability to do the work involved iv. Medical Tests: Medical tests are carried out to determine the physical fitness of the applicant and whether he has any hidden diseases. Candidates who might have contagious diseases will be rejected. INTERVIEW Interview is a conversation or verbal interaction between two or more people for a particular purpose. Interviewing is a crucial part of the selection process because it gives the organization an opportunity to assess the applicant directly, and it gives the applicant an opportunity to learn more about the organization and whether he or she wants the job Objectives of Interview It gives the employer an opportunity to obtain information about each applicant and to assess his suitability for the job. It enables the employer to cross-check the applicants original documents or educational certificates. It enables the employer to have a critical view of the physical appearance of the applicant It also gives him an opportunity to determine the applicants level of intelligence. It provides the applicant an opportunity to know more about the organization, the job and the employees of the organization. References (Background Investigations) References provide further confidential information about the prospective employee. Prospective candidates are normally asked to submit references who can be contacted when the need arises. Such references include: schools, colleges, universities, former employers (if any) and relatives. The use of reference compels employees to be honest in supplying information about themselves to an organization. References are brief statements about a candidate made by a third party usually the candidates superior. These statements are used to confirm information supplied by applicants on application forms. Placement This is the stage where the new employee is placed on the job. He is assigned to an officer and a superior if he is a clerical worker. It is the responsibility of the superior to give the new employee in-service training where necessary and to provide a schedule of duties. Induction This may be conducted by the personnel manager and it is the process of orientating the selected applicant into his or her new working environment. It takes the form of introducing new employees to existing staff, visits to the plants and other departments, informing him/her about his duties and responsibilities, as well as the policies and objective of the organization. Induction simply means the introduction of a new employee into his or her job or organization Job Changes The post recruitment functions of the personnel manager includes transfers, promotions, demotions and termination. i. Transfers:- This occurs when employees have been assigned to another branch, department or to another job involving similar responsibilities, skills and remuneration. The transfer could be from one department to another or one station to another. It may be used to correct an error made during the recruitment process. Reasons for transfers The close down of a branch or department may call for a transfer Self request by an employee because of his inability to relate well with co-workers of lack of interest in his job or for purposes of frequent medical check-ups due to sickness. Transfer may be used as a punishment device A person may also be transferred to take up a new appointment A fall in the level of production may also necessitate the re-allocation of employees. ii. Promotion Promotion may be defined as the transfer of an employee from one job to another which involves a greater responsibility and usually a higher reward (pay). In other words, it involves a change in status and usually means appointment to a higher grade with greater and more challenging responsibilities. It is an important aspect of management because it is through promotion that a worker obtains satisfaction and shows his desire to advance and develop. Promotion Policy Many large organizations have a policy of filling senior job positions from within the organization. Others also believe in recruitment from outside the organization. Every organization should however come out with a clear policy on promotion so that employees know in advance the criteria to be used in promotion. Normally promotion is based on the following: Seniority (length of service) Practical ability (skill) General attitude and loyalty Education and qualification Personality or character Advantages of Promotion Promotion improves morale and motivation of employees in the organization. Promotion helps reduce labour-turn over in an organization It is seen as a reward for dedicated service, hard work, loyalty and obedience to rules and regulations of the organization. Fair promotions create a feeling of content among employees and retain their interest in the company. It helps employees to put in extra effort to help attain organizational objectives It improves the earning power and status of the employees Problems of promotion more qualified employees may be ignored or overlooked an employee adjudged competent when promoted may perform below expectation qualified personnel when overlooked in time of promotion may feel dejected and unrecognized. This may affect his morale and for that matter his overall performance. A worker who has a special interest in his/her job e.g. cashier in a financial institution may refuse to accept promotion. iii. Demotion It is the reduction in rank of an employee or the transfer of an employee to jobs with lower ranks backed by a reduction in salary. It therefore refers to a decrease in status as well as remuneration. Reasons For Demotion: Failure on the part of employees to live up to expectation (poor performance) Serious crime against the organization example; pilfering, fraud, leaking, organizational secrets to the advantage of competitors etc. It can also be based on indiscipline or disloyal to rules of the organization Serious or unfavourable business conditions may necessitate lay-offs and termination; some employees may accept demotion as an alternative. Problems of Demotion it leads to reduction employee status and remuneration it also creates morale problems for affected employees. Some affected employees may resign, leading to labour turn over and its associated problems, iv. LABOUR TURN OVER Labour turn over refers to the rate at which employees are leaving the business organization at a particular time and their replacement. It therefore describes the movement of workers into and out of employment of an organization in a in a given period of time It is calculated by: L x 100 A Where: L = Those leaving during the year A = Average number employed during the year or Average number on the companys payroll within that period. A high (index) labour turnover means more people leave the employment because of low morale. It could also mean a high proportion of the employment of women or scholars who have returned to college to pursue academic careers, death, pension etc. Causes of Labour Turn Over There are various causes of labour turn-over. Among them include the following: Discontentment (dissatisfaction) among employees as a result of poor working conditions, Lack of promotional avenues Poor leadership style Very long hours of work with little time for rest Unfairness and improper administration of disciplinary measures Poor wages and salaries Lack of opportunities for self advancement Boredom, wrong job assignment or lack of job satisfaction Lack of opportunity to express opinions to management and to participate in decision making. Problems of Labour Turn Over It brings about extra-expenditure, that is hiring and training of new employees Production rate is decreased and this tend to affect the volume of ales and profit margins It leads to overtime payment for extra man-hours spent on the job The money spent on training developing employees who have left goes down the drain There could be low morale for the remaining employees due to loss of old work mates and friends It takes a lot of time for workers to properly settle or fit into the system Solution To the causes of labour turnover A study or research should be conducted to identify which factors have been the cause of dissatisfaction and that have been responsible for the labour turnover. The following suggested solutions could be applied by individual companies. i. Companies should provide attractive wages and salaries to ensure that employees are above to meet their basic necessities. ii. There should also be improvement in the working conditions of workers. Protective clothes, canteen, transport, housing and medical facilities should be provided to cater for the welfare of workers. iii. There should also be opportunities for growth and development for employees, e.g study leave, provision of library facilities, promotion etc. iv. Joint consultation must be instituted to enable representatives of workers and employers meet to identify common problems and find solutions to them. 2.4 Termination of Employment Every employer has the option to terminate the employment of his employees but only on the grounds that certain conditions are meet e.g. giving of appropriate notice and payment of entitlements. Employees also have an option to resign from their present job and look for another provided they also satisfy certain conditions e.g. appropriate notice and proper handing over. There are ways by which a contract of employment may be terminated and they include: redundancy, dismissals, retirement and resignation. 2.4.1 Redundancy This is a situation where employees are asked to leave their employment because of lack of work. that is, the organization does not need their service any longer. Therefore when there is reduction in production and the workers are greater than what the organization needs, some are asked to leave employment. 2.4.2 Dismissal Dismissal is an act of sending an employee away form his employment because be is not qualified, undisciplined or is dishonest in his work. It is the permanent withdrawal of an employee from the services of a company. 2.4.3 Retirement It is the act of retiring or having stopped working after attaining a certain age. The age may either be contained in the companys policy or decision taken by the individual himself. 2.4.4 Resignation Resignation usually comes from employees. Resignation is the indication by the employee that he has ceased to be in the employment of the employer. 2.4.5 Lay Off This is a temporary withdrawal of employees from work due to shortage of raw materials, low demand for the companies products or services, or financial problems. These employees may be called back when the need arises. When conditions improve and some of the aid-off workers are invited to come back to work, it is known as recall. 2.5 EDUCATION, TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT 2.5.1 Education This is usually intended to mean basic instructions in knowledge and skills designed to enable people make the most life in general. It is thus a process of training and instructing people in schools, colleges, Polytechnics, universities etc. which is designed to give knowledge and development of skills. At the end of the course, a certificate is given to those who pass their final examination. Education is therefore more personal and broadly based. 2.5.2 Development This suggests a broader view of knowledge and skills acquisition rather than training. It is less job-oriented and career-oriented. It sees employees as adaptable resources and thus concerned with preparing individuals with skills and experience to fill challenging higher level positions in the organization. 2.5.3 Training Training is job oriented rather than personal. Training involves a series of actions aimed at preparing an individual with skills to do a particular job. It may be defined as â€Å"the systematic development of the attitudes, knowledge and skill patterns required by an individual in order to perform adequately a given task or job† Methods of Training The main methods of training include: i. Apprenticeship Training This is a method of training where the apprentice under studies his master for a number of years, learning all the basic skills involved in the profession. This type of training is given to young people who have either completed school or who have not been to school. This type of training is common and popular in professions like tailoring, dressmaking, carpentry, driving and masonry. The apprentice pays a certain amount to his master and he is not paid during the period of his/her training but given allowance as and when necessary by his/her master. ii. Supervisory Training This type of training is give to employees who have been appointed supervisors or foremen. Supervisory training involves the teaching of supervisors or foremen the skill of getting work done through others. It is therefore meant to improve on their leadership skills and qualities. It takes place in an institute in the form of seminars or workshops with discussions on leadership, morale, development, directing, and health and safety measures. iii. Executive Training Personnel in middle management and top management positions are covered under this type

Information Systems :: Healthcare

Information systems are a vital necessity to healthcare institutions in the United States and other nations with the ominous need to keep up with technology, research, and science in the 21st. Century. Most of healthcare institutions in Africa still depend on physical documentation, written by hand and afterword’s stored in binders locked away in storing facilities. With the growing populace in Africa, gathering information concerning patients health documents is costly, hard to maintain, and unethical. Therefore, in this case scenario I’m going to target my research, in developing countries in Africa in general, who are striving to improve ideal management information system. The goal is to aim efforts to improve public health through enhanced supervision through healthcare information, such the ability to collect, store and analyze accurate health data, service transfer proficiency, improve data accuracy, value of involvement, increase accountability and to learn abou t trends. The objective of this information system is to record information on health events and check the quality of services at different stages of health care. The data collected will also help to notify forthcoming healthcare policy determinations. My objective is to provide a cheap alternative Information Systems (IS) solution to six nations in Africa with the demand for better health care and documentation of patient information. In turn this will help doctors to treat patients with perfected precision. The nations that will be requiring my expertise be situated in Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. My goal is to unite these six nations with one complete (IS) that will be funded by supporters and sponsors alike. These funded groups will be handling all aspects of service without the support from these nations’ governing parties. The purpose of this is to stray away officials, due to chaos, government manipulation, radicals, and civil wars. Information Systems implemented for project Africa. For project Africa I have included three types of information systems, the first (IS) that I have implemented (see Figure A), is the most important towards a well-balanced system is Clinical Information System (CIS) shown in (Figure A, IS1). This type of (IS) that is a computer based system which is designed for storing, collecting, making available clinical information, delivery of information faster, and efficient (Biohealthmatics.com, 2010). Systems like (CIS) can deliver all records such as the patient past history of illness and interactions with doctors, and healthcare providers. As a result, this information is proficient in assisting physicians in deciding patient’s current condition, treatment alternatives, wellness undertakings, and actions that embark on other significant information that can lead to improving patient’s overall health (Biohealthmatics.

Types of Risk

Introduction Long ago people viewed â€Å"risk† as the inevitability of chance which occurred beyond the control of humans. In today’s world the concept of â€Å"risk† has turned into riches, as risky ventures have become the norm in the business world. â€Å"Risk† therefore applies to decisions that can have a bad or good outcome. The different types of â€Å"risk† can include financial, legal, ethical, information technology, or even human resource since it can exist everywhere and at any time in our lives.When we eat, we encounter the risk of food poisoning, to cross the road we run the risk of being hit by a passing motor car or even when we drive, we can increase the risk of an accident. If no risk is done then, no breakthrough can be expected. Whether it is in your career, financially, or in your business. Once you fail to take a risk then you will suffer the consequences of making significant gains, which means that you run the risk of a poss ible loss. What is Risk? According to Mortimer (2005 p. 5) â€Å"risk† is any uncertainty about a future event which might threaten an organization’s ability to accomplish its mission. Which means that it can be the chance of something happening that will have a negative impact on an organization. It is the possibility of suffering a loss that is loss of quality income, loss of profit, loss of success or even loss of life. It means therefore that change involves â€Å"risk†, but once the set program has been attained or has achieved total success â€Å"risk† vanishes.It is therefore of great importance that the management of risk be well managed. â€Å"Risk management† was engineered into dealing with the possibility that some future event might cause harm. It includes strategies and techniques for recognizing and confronting treats of risk and provided an environment for proactive decision making for the proactive decision making, for the purpose of: * â€Å"What can go wrong† * â€Å"What will we do† * â€Å"How will or can it be resolved†. Success in business to a certain degree requires owners or managers to take â€Å"risk†.Most successful businesses are managed by people who know when or how to push forward and when or how to hold back, when to sell and when to stand firm. According to Yusof (2007) p. 1. â€Å"Risk is an undeniable reality of doing business today, whether globally or locally. Although failure is in a way linked to â€Å"risk†, the successful business person should not fear â€Å"risk† but strives to understand it, to manage it, or even try to take advantage of it. In that way the business person would be able to calculate the risk before taking it.Unfortunately the world of business now is exposed to more risk, such as high interest rate, inflation, recession, high exchange rates, even political and cultural risk to name a few. Therefore it takes a great deal o f expertise to effectively manage risk in business. Financial Risk Financial Risk is associated with the use of debt financing by firms or companies, since the presence of debt involves legal and mandatory obligations to make specified payments at specified time period. There is a risk that the earnings of the firm may not be sufficient to meet these obligations towards the creditors.In case of the shareholders, the financial risks occur because it is not only the mandatory nature of debt obligations but also the property of ‘prior payments’ of these obligations. In short, the use of debt by the firm causes variability of return for both creditors and shareholders. Financial risk is usually measured by the debt/equity ratio of the firm: the higher the ratio, the greater the variability of the return and the higher the financial risk. Financial risk also involves liquidity risk, maturity risk, interest rate risk and inflation risk.Liquidity refers to situations wherein i t may not be possible to dispose or sell the assets or it maybe possible to sell only at great inconvenience of cost in terms of money and time. The greater the uncertainty about true elements, price concession, and transaction cost; the greater the liquidity risk. Liquidity Risk has a different connotation from the point of view of banks and financial institutions. In this context liquidity risk refers to their inability to meet the liability towards depositors when they want to withdraw their deposits.Maturity risks arise when the term of maturity of the security happens to be longer. Since foreseeing, forecasting and envisioning the environment, conditions and situations become more and more difficult as we go more and more into the future. The longer term investment involves risk, the longer the term of maturity the greater the risk. Interest Rates Risks are the variability in the returns on security due to changes in the level of the market interest rates, or it is the loss of principal of a fixed term security due to an increase in the general level of interest rates.When interest rates raise the value or market price of the security drops or vice versa. The degree of interest rate is directly related to the length of time to maturity of the security. If the term to maturity is long then the market value of the security may fluctuate widely. Inflation Risk is the risk that the real return on security may be less than the nominal return. In case of fixed income security, since payments in term foreign dollars are fixed. The value of the payments in real term declines as the level of commodity prices increases.Inflation risk is also known as purchasing power risk as there is always a chance that the purchasing power of invested money will decline, or that the real return will decline due to inflation. Legal Risk Most legal risk arise from the possibility that a counterparty is not legally permitted or able to enter into a transaction. Legal risk is the ris k that legal actions will impair the value of investment or it may be a risk from uncertainty due to legal actions or uncertainty in the applicability or interpretation of contracts, laws or regulations.This can cause a particular problem for companies who choose to transact business with other overseas businesses. Not only are they exposed to uncertainty relating to the laws of multiple jurisdictions, but they also face uncertainty as to which jurisdiction will have authority over any particular legal issue. This risk can be reduced by the company hiring experience corporate lawyers. Ethical Risk Ethical risks concern the impact that the business has on shareholders at the local, national and global levels.In some cases these risks can influence the organization’s intangible assets such as the human capital, the business reputation and its clientele. Some of the factors impinging ethical risks are: * The establishment of codes of conduct * Adherence to the code * Programme t o improve performance * Good internal communication * Clearly defined mechanisms to encourage employees to respect possible violation. As the evolution of new devices in the field of information technology there is also an increased tendency for hackers to try to infiltrate company’s network.The company can also face risk associated with theft or release of personal data such as employees’ social security numbers and bank account numbers. A part of this risk can be reduced by installing firewall software and additional access codes. Human Resource Risk Another type of risk is human resource, this is most important within the company as companies demand skilled labours to work with the job market. Companies suffer or run the risk of hiring workers who are paid as qualified and skilled workers, when they are not.Other risks would include labour fluctuation and also a rise in the labour cost, which may result in strikes and lock-outs by trade unions and negligence. Compan ies can reduce the risk by providing incentives to the workers and also offer educational grants for workers to upgrade their careers. Political Risk Finally, the political risk can be describes as the type of risk has to do with the political decision making process within the environment for business. The lack of transparency and accountability in a political system whereby decisions which impact businesses can change dramatically due to political or social instability.The immediate resignation of the Prime Minister of Jamaica- Hon. Bruce Golding is an ideal example of political risk. Safety Risk When running a small company, every move a business owner or employee makes is a source of risk. In any case where high risk is involved, it's prudent to consult a lawyer or other professional who can advise you on how to protect your business. If an owner runs a factory or other job site that requires workers to use machinery, equipment or vehicles in the course of business, workplace sa fety is a matter of utmost importance and a key source of risk.For this reason, they must follow guidelines set by Safety & Health Administration. In addition to workplace safety concerns involving physical injury, health issues also pose a risk to some businesses, particularly medical offices and hospitals. Employees must observe strict rule and regulation to protect the public and themselves from health-related threats. Conflicts between employees are also a main source of risk for small businesses that employ workers. Risks include claims of discrimination (including sex, race, age and discrimination based on disabilities) and harassment from other employees.These issues could lead to expensive lawsuits for the business. The company must comply with rules set by government agencies like the Ministry of Labour and ensure that it follows proper procedures in all instances and with any situation involving these issues. Sources of Risk For companies that serve certain types of goods to the public, like food and skincare products, product quality is a major concern and a high source of business risk. Some products have the potential of harming the consumer if the company doesn't take proper steps to meet quality standards.Negligence involving the products of these items could lead to legal issues and damage the company's reputation Bibliography Al, M. A. (2004). Hanbook of Management 3rd Edition. London : Pearson Education . Bhole, L. (2004). Financial Institutions and Markets 4th Edition. New Delhi, India : Tata McCraw Hill. Mortimer, D. , S. Mortimer (2005) Quality and Risk Management. Cambridge University Press, London, England Yusof, Y. (2007). Managing Financial Risk. United Kingdom: Author House .

Performing Personal Hygiene Rituals Without Gravity

Performing Personal Hygiene Rituals Without Gravity There are many things we take for granted here on Earth that take on a whole new aspect in orbit. On Earth, we expect our food to stay on our plates. Water stays in containers. And, we always have an ample supply of air to breathe. In space, all those activities are a lot more difficult and require careful planning. Thats because of the microgravity environments that astronauts live in on orbit. Astronaut Ed Lu uses chopsticks to hold his food and a drink packet to keep fluids from escaping before he drinks them.   NASA The Complexity of Life in Space All human missions have to deal not only with feeding and housing astronauts, but taking care of their other bodily needs. In particular, for long-duration missions, the management of ordinary daily habits becomes even more important since these activities require sanitary conditions to operate in the weightlessness of space. Space agency folks around the world spend a lot of time designing such systems. Taking a Shower There used to be no way to take a shower on an orbital craft, so astronauts had to make do with sponge baths until they returned home. They washed with wet washcloths and utilized  soaps that do not require rinsing. Keeping clean in space is as important as it is at home, and even doubly so since astronauts at times spend long hours in space suits wearing diapers so they can stay outside and get their work done.   Astronaut Karen Nygard shows how an astronaut can do a shampoo in space. NASA Things have changed and nowadays, there are shower units on the International Space Station. Astronauts jump into a round, curtained chamber to shower. When theyre done, the machine suctions up all the water droplets from their shower.  To provide a little privacy, they extend the curtain of the WCS (Waste Collection System), the toilet or bathroom. These same systems may well be used on the Moon or an asteroid or Mars when humans get around to visiting those places in the near future.   Brushing Teeth Its not only possible to brush your teeth in space, but its also essential since the nearest dentist is a few hundred miles away if somebody gets a cavity. But, tooth brushing presented a unique problem for astronauts during early space travel. Its a messy operation- they cant really just spit in space and expect the environment to stay tidy. So, a dental consultant with NASAs Johnson Space Center in Houston developed a toothpaste, now marketed commercially as NASADent, that can be swallowed. Foamless and ingestible, it has been a major breakthrough for the elderly, hospital patients, and others who have trouble brushing their teeth.   Astronauts who can not bring themselves to swallow the toothpaste, or who have brought their own favorite brands, sometimes spit into a washcloth. Using the Toilet One of the most-asked questions that NASA receives is about bathroom rituals. Every astronaut gets asked the question, How do you go to the bathroom in space? The answer is, very carefully. Since there is no gravity to either hold a toilet bowl full of water in place or pull human wastes down, designing a toilet for zero-gravity was no easy task. NASA had to use air flow to direct urine and feces.   The toilets on the International Space Station  are designed to look and feel as similar to those on Earth as possible. However, there are some important differences. Astronauts must use straps to hold their feet against the floor and pivoting bars swing across the thighs, ensuring the user remains seated. Since the system operates on a vacuum, a tight seal is essential. Beside the main toilet bowl, there is a hose, which is utilized as a urinal by men and women. It can be used in a standing position or can be attached to the commode by a pivoting mounting bracket for use in a sitting position. A separate receptacle allows for disposal of wipes. All units use flowing air instead of water to move waste through the system. The human waste is separated and solid wastes are compressed, exposed to vacuum, and stored for later removal. Wastewater is vented to space, although future systems may recycle it. The air is filtered to remove odor and bacteria and then returned to the station. This is the toilet device used onboard the Russian Soyuz craft.   Maksym Kozlenko, CC BY-SA-4.0 Future waste-removal systems on long-term missions may involve recycling for onboard hydroponics and gardens systems or other recycling requirements. Space bathrooms have come a long way from the early days when astronauts had pretty crude methods to handle the situation. Fast Facts Personal hygiene tasks in space are a lot more complex than here on Earth. The low-gravity environment requires more care.Shower systems have been installed on space stations, but they require very careful attention to make sure water does not stray into the crew compartments and electronics.Toilet facilities use suction and other devices to direct materials for safe storage and away from the walls and electronics. Edited and updated by  Carolyn Collins Petersen.

Brief History of Leonardo da Vinci essays

Brief History of Leonardo da Vinci essays In the year,1452. Leonardo da Vinci was borned in Vinci, a hill village in Tuscany, Italy.Throughout his childhood he reachout with opened arms to expand his mind. He loved to draw by examples from his books filled of drawings of plants, ideas for inventions, and much more.With the versatility and creative power that he had by using his mind. It marked him as a supreme example of Renaissance genius throughout the renaissance period.Besides being italian painter, he was also a sculptor, a architect, a musician, a engineer, a mathmacian as well as a scientist.With a career of being a artist, Leonardo came with mind blowing ideas with math equations as well sciencfic notes throught out his lifetime.In Florence where Leonardo usually lived,he engaged in much theoretical work in mathematics and pursued his anatomical studies withc we know to be true today.To note the aging genius was assigned to various architectural and engineering projects at the Vatican witch dealt with very complexing ideas with math.With some many projects, you can see how what kind of schedule he had. With in the renaissance era, he found the field dominated by Michelangelo and Raphael as well as himself. The trio were unstoppable , they minds togeather were a force to no be fought with it. Even though, Leonardo met michelangelo and raphael late in his life. Mos tof his work, is influnced by those men. By the year 1519, the renaiassance era was closing and so was Leo's life. He died in Amboise, and the world was in mourning of the lost one of greatest geniuses of mankind. ...

The Founding and the Constitution Research Paper

The Founding and the Constitution - Research Paper Example s required given the absolute nature of laws written into the Constitution, so the document is laying out a requirement that seeks a high standard of judgment. Also, the Constitution requires super majority votes from both the Senate as well as the House because, in theory, the two parts of the legislature were meant to represent different interests and different people (the Senate representing more of the small, rural states, which get to send two Senators in all cases whereas the House representing more of the populous states, which get to send representatives on the basis of population) (Alder). The second procedure (the â€Å"informal method†) for proposing amendments to the Constitution provides protection for states to an unresponsive Congress. If two-thirds of states agree to call for a convention, the Congress is obliged to call a convention. This method has neither constitutional instruction for how to complete the convention nor precedent to be relied upon. It is not clear whether the states would be represented equally or by population. With that said, all amendments to the Constitution have been carried out through the first procedure described. The Founders may have wanted this second procedure as a way of empowering the states and protecting against an intrusive, federal government (Mount). 2. â€Å"Loose construction† refers to a loose or liberal interpretation of the U.S. Constitution, thus expanding federal powers beyond those explicitly mentioned in the document. In contrast, â€Å"strict construction† refers to the opposite: it is a legal philosophy that requires the interpreter of the Constitution to apply the text only as it is written. In other words, powers not enumerated in the Constitution are invalid (Welch). As was described previously, the formal method of amendment has a clear process described in the Constitution, which maps onto the normal procedure for business of the Congress in creating laws. Therefore, the formal method of

Interior and Spatial Design Contextual Studies Essay

Interior and Spatial Design Contextual Studies - Essay Example Generational change has also led to continuous shift in tastes. Spatial design comes in handy to sort these problems. For these reasons, this essay seeks to research and discuss the relationship between abstract painting and interior spatial design. Furthermore, the essay will include empirical studies of various artists and professionals in the field of fine arts and design. Through various reviews, I have learnt that painters and spatial designers are making immense contributions to the society. I have hence learnt that I will be in a position to create aesthetic appeal of homes. Through expertise in spatial art and interior design, I will be able to restore happiness and satisfaction to myself and the human race. Through appraisal of beauty, the field has enabled me to value specific objects in the society. I have also learnt the strategic use of interior design in drawing building plans taking into account interior spaces and probable rooming. In eventuality, they should award space appropriately to each section of a building. In my study of abstract paintings, I realized that they draw interests from everyone. On the contrary, I realized that a person who possesses a piece of an abstract painting could keep it for ages without having interpreted its meaning. Therefore, the value of such a work of art increases as time progresses in the sense that, it portrays not only its aesthetic value, but also the mysterious thought behind its conception. This misery behind the artistic works drew much interest from me, making me to relate commodities to their ideal values. Using an example of the value of money, I realized that everyone understands the importance of money and its value. However, people seem not to understand the real value of the money which is reflected by the purchasing potential as opposed to indicated numerical value indicated. In this respect, I have come to the conclusion that some abstract