Book Review Imperial Germany

Date: April 18, 2012 Subject: Book Review The book â€Å"Imperial Germany 1871-1918† by Volker R. Berghahn has the under title Economy, Society, Culture and Politics and was first published in 1994 by Berghahn books. The used edition is the revised and expanded edition published in 2005 and summarizes the events in the ‘Kaiserreich’ (1871-1918). Furthermore, the book has 388 pages and is divided in five parts which are Economy, Society, Culture, the Realm of Politics, and World War I. Each part has numerous under parts giving the reader detailed information about each part.In addition, the author did tremendous research on the German Empire, founded by Otto von Bismarck in 1871 and lasting until the end of World War I, to clarify the broader outlines of the development between 1871 and 1918 and to explain why Germany went to war in 1914 and lost that conflict four years later. Volker Berghahn, born 15 February 1938 in Berlin, studied jurisprudence at the Universit y of Gottingen in the first place and then history and politics at the University of North Carolina.He taught in England and Germany before coming to Brown University in 1988 and to Columbia ten years later since then, he is Seth Low Professor of History at Columbia University. Moreover, he has published widely on modern German history and European-American relations. The book â€Å"Imperial Germany† is a comprehensive history of Germany and is thematically organized to provide data and information about major developments and the Bismarckian and Wilhelmine eras. The author expresses his theses and opinions in this book.Firstly, Berghahn? s position regarding the debates over the Deutschen Sonderweg is balanced and his main view about the German population is that it was characterized by pluralization and polarization. In particular, the society became more pluralistic after 1871 demonstrated by a more colorful and dynamic Kaiserreich. Berghahn demonstrated this richness and diverseness of the German population by looking at German? s society and culture. Polarization also played a main role in the Imperial Germany. In Berghahn? opinion, polarization is connected with another controversial which is whether or not the Kaissereich was in a deep crisis before World War I. His first evidence is that the economy was not in a good shape (tax conflicts, armament expenditures) followed by evidences such as that the society had difficulties to integrate industrial workers and minorities, the cultural view was pessimistic and the political realm came in a stage of stagnation. He also argues that the Kaissereich is a class society and analyzes who classes/groups/people are the â€Å"losers† of the society development.Furthermore, he points out the impact of gender, minorities, generations and religion but makes clear that these are only under topics of analyzing Germany. Moreover, the author was driven by his interest in major related issue in the Kaiserrei ch. The issue is that he wants to explain why Germany ended up in World War I. His thesis is that the catastrophe was triggered by Vienna? s and Berlin? s decision makers. Berghahn does a pretty good job in backing up his theses. The reason is that he uses other historians? opinions to support the written. For example, in the 1st part, ?Economy`, (Page 13) he writes that the economy experienced an upswing that lasted until 1913 and backs up this statement by providing a footnote which can be find at the end of the book. In addition, he provides the reader with tables to support his data and information. The tables are good because they make it easier to understand the data and summarize the written perfectly. Additionally, he cites other people who are mainly historians as well and have published famous and generally accepted writings such as M. Kaplan, The Jewish Feminist Movement in Germany.Moreover, Berghahn also refers to researches by mention them after his thesis or/and statem ent. Another notable characteristic of Berghahn? s book is that he mentions counter theses. By mention them; the reader gets to know the different historical views and what diverse and numerous opinions historians have about the development of Germany (1871-1914). Additionally, to support his theses, Berghahn confutes counter theses by giving data, information and arguments which show that the other historians? theses are wrong. In other words, Berghahn uses other (â€Å"wrong†) theses to support his theses.The author also uses counter theses to introduce a new theme and to make the reader think about the argument more deeply. In addition, he uses a research and/or historian thesis which is from the past or only the beginning of a thesis to further develop his thesis up on the other thesis. Furthermore, Berghahn sometimes writes what a specific historian thinks about a topic without commenting it. In comparison to the other books? authors we have read so far, the author of th e book â€Å"Imperial Germany; Economy, Society, Culture and Politics† writes differently. Firstly, he states his wn opinions and theses, whereas the other authors mainly provide information. Additionally, Berghahn provides a lot of tables at the end of the book as compared to no tables in the previous books. In contrast to some use of footnotes (other writers? publications) in previous books, in Berghahn? s book, you find footnotes everywhere and the book has 32 pages only for footnotes. Additionally, Berghahn writes not chronologically like Blackbourn for example, he divides the part thematically. In conclusion, on one hand, the book was informative and I like that Berghahn mentions other historians opinions as well.In addition, the use of tables makes it easier to understand the data and he handles counter theses well. On the other hand, the book was hard to read and protracted because his sentences are not straight forward and clear and he uses a lot of numbers in his wri tings making it hard to follow. Additionally, I don? t like how the book is organized (thematically) because for me, I prefer reading of all the developments happened in one time period. However, it shouldn? t be forgotten that the book is a very useful source and provides the reader with tones of information about the developments in the ? Kaiserreich`.

Chapter Reflection

I can definitely see myself using some of the stuff that I read about in this chapter in my true classroom. The first section of this chapter was all about the deferent levels of curriculum integration. I learned that there are three different levels of integration: connected, shared, and partnered. The least complicated of the three is â€Å"connected†, and would lust Involve me, as the teacher, making simple connections between two subject areas.I think that this would involve me looking at two subjects and then finding the common ground that they share so that I could reinforce knowledge from one subject In another. The second level would be â€Å"shared†, which would Involve taking salary incepts in two or more subjects and reinforcing them in each of the subjects. You want to be able to reinforce something in one subject, and do the same thing for the other. The keyword Is â€Å"share†. I learned that the last level, â€Å"partnered†. Is often the mos t difficult. It would be the most difficult because it involves a team of teachers discussing the same big ideas.I think that this would be difficult because each teacher In the team might have a different Idea about what would be best and It might be difficult to keep what is most important at the center of the discussion. Integration can definitely be hard, but it is doable. The next section of the chapter talked about devising your own cross-disciplinary topics. The big thing about this section was the matrix that was included to help us think about cross-disciplinary studies so that we can create our own topic connections.When filling out the matrix, It will become easier to see where commonalities may lie. Some links will come easily to us, but I think that this matrix will definitely be of use to me in the future. Matrixes and tables always have a way of making things easier to observe and understand. This Is Just the most basic, and the rest of the chapter got a little more t echnical and specific with ideas. The next big section of this chapter was about interdisciplinary examples for linking physical education content to other subjects.For math, we could do things like ask students to find their maximum heart rate that they reached after Jumping rope, or ask students about what shapes they can draw using the lines of a basketball court. With language arts, children could read books based on movement or games, which would help students make links with physical education, or we could also have them write â€Å"l can† sentences that talk about things that they can do in the ball below my waist, and by keeping my head up. We could incorporate physical education with science by having the students hop into the air, and then ask them why they come down after they Jump. With social studies, we could do things like ask students how games that we play in the US are different than the way they are played in other countries, or we could ask our students to think about things that they do after school and then whether or not they were available to children 30 years go. It is very important for connections to be made because, when they are, students are more likely to learn and retain information.They're also more likely to learn when they're having fun and enjoying themselves. If we can find a way for them to do this and become more physically fit, then that is always a bonus! The last section of this chapter was about how you can apply classroom study topics to physical education lessons. There were lots of different ideas listed in this section as well. After reading all of the ideas and suggestions that were presented in his chapter, it only confirmed what I believed before. Children are more likely to learn when they're having fun.When you incorporate classroom topics into physical education, children may think they're being given the chance to play when, in reality, they're also learning. The more we can do this, the better! I de finitely plan on using some of the ideas from this section in the future. The ideas put forth in this chapter were very useful to me. I plan on being creative and, in the future, taking some of these ideas and expanding on them to make them my own. I firmly believe that the more active we can get our students, the better.Over to You 1) I would say that I am the most creative in finding a way to make something work. If something doesn't work, I try everything I can to achieve the end result that I want or the ideal end result. Sometimes it may not be the most conventional way of doing things, but my somewhat creative mind gets the Job done that way. I also like making things look pretty, and I have found that I will often find a creative way to make something stand out. I think it definitely has an advantage in finding connections.It will help me look for similarities between two subjects and then find a way to bring them together based on their common ground. I'm a believer that the re is usually always a way to make something work. 2) To find ideas about cross-disciplinary learning, I could talk to my teachers and fellow colleagues, especially those who have been around in the profession longer than a new teacher has. They know what works and what doesn't work, and could be a great source of ideas and advice. Academic Journals could also be a good source of information and ideas. When in bout†¦ Ask! ) You could have students design a game that would make them become more active while, at the same time, helping them to review content that they've learned in the classroom. You want to get your students up and moving in any way that you possibly can. You can also have your students look at how certain popular games here in the US (such as baseball and basketball) might be played differently in other countries, and then have the students attempt to play the games being physically active. 4) I think that, for me, it would be easier to take classroom epics and apply them to physical education lessons.I could take my students on nature walks. I could also strive to plan more lessons and activities for the classroom that would get them to become more active. I think it's definitely easier for me to incorporate physical education into the classroom. It gives me an avenue through which I can be very creative, and I love that. I also think that it would help me to become more active as well, as I would have to kind of go through the motions to find out what would work best with my students and what wouldn't.

Life in the Past and Life Now-Comparison.

Life in the past and life now-comparison. Over the last century, there have been many significant changes in the way we live. Obviously, it is hard to compare the life of the ancient people and the life of the people of the twenty first century because so many changes have occurred. However, even the changes that have taken place over the last ten years are amazing. To start with, people were not able to travel such long distances in such short period of time. The planes were not that popular then because they used to be a very expensive means of transport.Nowadays, we have become very mobile. We have fast and comfortable cars and more and more people also travel by plane. Moreover, in the past people had to work much harder as they did not have tools which made their work easier. Today, most of the difficult and dangerous work is done by computers and other machines. In the past the conditions of living were not as comfortable as they are now. There were not bathrooms and running wa ter in many houses, besides many people could not afford household appliances like fridge, TV set or vacuum cleaner because they used to be luxurious goods.Another difference between living now and in the past is the fact that nowadays the access to education is much easier. In the past, there were fewer schools and the quality of the education they provided was much poorer. Besides, nowadays it is much easier to find the educational materials that you need thanks to the Internet. Another difference is that in the past there were not that many sources of entertainment. Therefore people used to spend more time with their friends.All things considering, it is an obvious conclusion that life has changed significantly in the last couple of years. It is definitely much easier now however, it is not easy to decide whether it is also better. The scientific achievements and technological progress are amazing. We still create new inventions which simplify our lives. On the other hand, howeve r, life now is much faster and busier than it used to be in the past. Moreover, it has also become more dangerous. The standard of living has definitely improved but it can be discussed whether the quality of our lives is also better. Life in the Past and Life Now-Comparison. Life in the past and life now-comparison. Over the last century, there have been many significant changes in the way we live. Obviously, it is hard to compare the life of the ancient people and the life of the people of the twenty first century because so many changes have occurred. However, even the changes that have taken place over the last ten years are amazing. To start with, people were not able to travel such long distances in such short period of time. The planes were not that popular then because they used to be a very expensive means of transport.Nowadays, we have become very mobile. We have fast and comfortable cars and more and more people also travel by plane. Moreover, in the past people had to work much harder as they did not have tools which made their work easier. Today, most of the difficult and dangerous work is done by computers and other machines. In the past the conditions of living were not as comfortable as they are now. There were not bathrooms and running wa ter in many houses, besides many people could not afford household appliances like fridge, TV set or vacuum cleaner because they used to be luxurious goods.Another difference between living now and in the past is the fact that nowadays the access to education is much easier. In the past, there were fewer schools and the quality of the education they provided was much poorer. Besides, nowadays it is much easier to find the educational materials that you need thanks to the Internet. Another difference is that in the past there were not that many sources of entertainment. Therefore people used to spend more time with their friends.All things considering, it is an obvious conclusion that life has changed significantly in the last couple of years. It is definitely much easier now however, it is not easy to decide whether it is also better. The scientific achievements and technological progress are amazing. We still create new inventions which simplify our lives. On the other hand, howeve r, life now is much faster and busier than it used to be in the past. Moreover, it has also become more dangerous. The standard of living has definitely improved but it can be discussed whether the quality of our lives is also better.

Microeconomics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 6

Microeconomics - Essay Example The ecological paradigm emphasises on the health and survival of ecosystems. This means minimal and controlled exploitation of the ecosystem. On the other hand, microeconomics stresses on maximising the welfare of the people. This involves maximum exploitation of resources. This causes destruction, depletion and pollution. This has led to the development of ecological economics. This field deals with merging the insights of the two paradigms and resolve their differences. Microeconomics seeks to understand why a market has failed to deliver satisfactory results. It then explains theoretical conditions that are necessary for achievement of perfect competition. When a market has failed, its standard economic assumptions have been undermined. Causes for this include, negative externalities which makes social cost of production to surpass private cost. An example is effects of pollution. On the other hand, positive externalities cause social benefits of consumption to be higher than the private benefit. Imperfect information leads to over-production of demerit goods and under-production of merit goods. Underproduction and high prices can result from dominance by monopolies in the market. Incomplete market occurs where buyers and sellers are not fully aware of the other person’s position regarding product price hence prices may not reflect the true value for the product. Production inefficiency results from factor immobility which causes unemployment. Its competitive advantage is below the expectations of the society (Garegnani, 2006). Market failure results in allocative inefficiency. This is where there is resource misallocation and production of products that are not needed by customers at that time. It is an issue because these resources could have been utilized to make products that meet customer needs. It also causes production inefficiency. This is where given inputs are put in place but the outputs are

Agglomeration Economies and Equilbrium Location of Firms Term Paper

Agglomeration Economies and Equilbrium Location of Firms - Term Paper Example gglomeration is widely practiced by the urban metropolis to ensure good supply channels, trained workers, and infrastructure that will be in compliance with the nature of the industry. Owing to agglomeration economies, people and firms give attention to a particular region of operation or a specific geographical region. The basic perception of agglomeration economies is facilitation of production when economic activity is clustered and such notions are developed to suffice the ultimate end of forming and developing a city. Multiple factors like types of economies formed, network connections, and the advantages and disadvantages that may result in the growth of cities.  Two distinct types of agglomeration economies are operating in the global economic domain: urbanization economies and localization economies. An urbanization economy is related to citys population and level of employment along with the multiplicity of its productive constitution. On the contrary, a localization economy is associated with a citys specialization in one specific segment. According to Sassen producer services, unlike other types of services are mostly not as reliant on the proximity of the buyers as consumer services. Thus, concentration of production in suitable locations and export, both regionally and internationally are feasible. Production of these services benefits from the nearness to other services, especially when array of specialized firms are available. These firms obtain agglomeration economies when they settle in the vicinity of the others that are sellers of key inputs necessary for combined production of certain service offerings. This is a valid reason for New Yorks losing of corporate headquarters for the past few decades and the number and employment of firms which were servicing such headquarters went on increasing rapidly. Sassen also highlighted another kind of agglomeration economy which comprises amenities and lifestyles which large urban centers can offer to

Re David Thompson Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Re David Thompson - Essay Example He was attended to by DI. He underwent to treatment to his right eye but was told that the operation was only partially unsuccessful. On August 12, he returned once more, but was again told that the operation was only partially successful. On August 19, he returned for treatment on his left eye, and this yielded completely satisfactory results. Additional treatment on his left eye was conducted on September 29. This operation was done both by DI and DB. It was during this visit that complications arose. Mr. David Johnson was informed that there was a problem as his cornea has been penetrated. In a subsequent examination by DI, he was told that his corneal flap had been damaged and that a corneal graft was probably necessary. He was referred to Dr. Singh (GS) at the Grafton Hospital in Oxford. 3. Mr. David Johnson has had several operations and procedures to correct the damage to the cornea, beginning with the stitching the damaged corneal flap on September 30, 2003 and culminating in a corneal graft on September 24, 2004. The sight on the right eye is still problematic. He is on the NHS waiting list to have a contact lens implant. After the operation at Eye Right, he experienced pain due to â€Å"dry† eye, reduced and disturbed sight and very poor night vision. Until the corneal graft, he could not drive. His vision was unbalanced as his left eye was normal. He became solely dependent on his family. He became prone to headaches and fatigue and was unable to work for 6 months, although he received sick leave pay. He has since returned to his job as librarian, earning 32,575 p.a. (net). He still requires constant application of eye lubricant to counteract the dry eye syndrome, I.e., one NHS prescription per month. He must wear special glasses costing 195.00 and dark glasses in the sun costing 105.00. 4. According to

Arrow Electronics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Arrow Electronics - Essay Example Zeus to military and aerospace customers, wile, A/S & Anthem to industrial customers. The two other groups were product driven and they are Gates/Arrow distributing and selling primary computer systems, peripherals and software, Capstone electronics passive components. In all the groups Arrow/Schweber (A/S), the largest of Arrow's working groups having higher levels of technological expertise through technical certification of its field sales representatives (FSR). A/S operations were configured by branch, headed by General Manager includes Field sales and inside sales representatives, products managers, field application engineers and others. Overall six VP's oversaw A/S's 39 branch mangers. Arrow electronics was a broad line distribution of electronic parts including semiconductor and passive components, under the leadership of Stephen Kaufman and reached the number one position among electronics distributors by 1992. Most of the distribution companies' worldwide passing through co nsolidation phase and small number of large companies capturing the top tier of the markets by 1997. Arrow's nearest competitors in 1996 is Avnet Inc. having sales around 20% less than Arrow during the year. Other competitors of Arrow, are Future electronics, Pioneer standard, Wyle and Marshall Industries and all have only quarter size of Arrow in total sales volume and earned less than Arrow's largest operating group. Arrow is making profit and earned more than $6.5 billion in sales in 1996. This situation shows Arrow position is very strong in the market having only one genuine competitor Avnet Inc. Creating more value. Basically distributors like Arrow's relationship and dependence with suppliers are vice-versa where both depend on each other. In an electronic industry where top 10 suppliers controls 80% of products, A/S's suppliers list included 56 companies in 1997 and growing. This shows that A/S is not solely dependent on top suppliers or selected few suppliers but effective management of large number of suppliers is not an easy job and requires better networking which incurs high cost. A/S's largest supplier Altera, the manufacturer of proprietary programmable logic device (PLD's) supplies 80% of its products through two distributors capable of providing value added programming required by individual customers. Large suppliers like Intel, Taxes instruments and Motorola are the other 3 of the big four suppliers for the A/S. Now before analyzing A/S on the basis of value provider, we should first understand what is value chain and how it work What is value: The value chain is a system of interdependent rather than independent activities. The way one activity is performed usually has an impact on the way other activities and undertaken. The ability to coordinate the linkages enhances the scope of cutting costs or increasing differentiation. The first step is to identify all the value chain activities that are relevant to the business. The value chain must be defined broadly enough to include all the activities that influence profitability. Once companies like Arrow's identifies how profits are distributed across the industry value chain, it has a better idea of how to reconstruct the value chain to improve performance. Indeed new business models emerge by virtue of their superior ability to create and deliver value. A company can create a stronger competitive position for itself on the value chain by addressing important issues like: How value is being captured; The gap

Dyslexia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Dyslexia - Essay Example Several definitions of dyslexia revealed that reading deficits is the only common symptom among all of them (Doyle 1996), therefore, this paper's scope is focused more on such problems as related to dyslexia. Although varying in approach and interpretation of dyslexia, researches done by Beech (2005), Fisher & DeFries (2002), Habib (2000), Helland, Turid & Asbjornsen (2003), as well as those by Lachmanni & Geyer (2003). Needle, Fawcett & Nicolson (2006), Perry & Rice (1999), Davis & Braun (1995), Sawyer (2006), and Singleton (2005) invariably referred to reading deficit as common symptom of dyslexia. The same is true with those of Vellutino, Fletcher, Snowling, & Scanlon (2004). Although references have been accorded to some researchers of dyslexia, the bulk of these discussions here have been sourced from Gardiola (2001) who has so far covered extensively the history of dyslexia and its genetic etiology or the study of its cause. The paper ends with the hope that with the recent proliferation of theories and studies now, the main genes influencing the development of reading and dyslexia will soon be known. Bright solutions (2007) gives thre... If a child's difficulty with reading could not be explained by low intelligence, poor eye sight, poor hearing, inadequate educational opportunities, or any other problem, then the child must be dyslexic. That definition, however, did nor please parents, teachers, or researchers. Simple and revised definition. Accordingly, the simple definition says dyslexia is an inherited condition that makes it extremely difficult to read, write, and spell in one's native language, despite at least average intelligence. On the other hand, the revised definition from the International Dyslexia Association is that - Dyslexia is a neurologically-based, often familial, disorder which interferes with the acquisition and processing of language. Varying in degrees of severity, it is manifested by difficulties in receptive and expressive language, including phonological processing, in reading, writing, spelling, handwriting, and sometimes in arithmetic. Research definition. Finally, the research definition used by the National Institutes of Health is that - Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition, and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge. Organizational definitions. Dyslexia is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities

Architectural History, Theory & Criticism Essay

Architectural History, Theory & Criticism - Essay Example In all the dialogue, we need to distinguish the terms and notions of postmodernism. Even so, according to Jencks (2010), Postmodernism is deepening of modernism. It is a combination of modernism and other things, a slide away from its parent rather than an act of parricide. It is considered a loyal opposition rather than a movement that is anti-modern. On the other hand, Ronald Nash refers to postmodernism as a present-day movement that rejects dogmas, allegedly taught during the age of enlightenment by thinkers, and by proponents of those ideas, who assisted in producing the movement we now know as modernism (Proctor, 2012). Post-modernism has returned as a major movement in the arts since the millennium post-modernism. This has happened with the revisiting of landmark sculptures and the explosive growth in iconic buildings, and ornaments and pattern making in architecture and the arts. Most post-modern concerns of the 1970s and the 1980s have become central to the society (Jencks, 2012). Jencks states that a typical post-modern building is one that is hybrid and one that dramatizes opposing trend mixtures, of the past, present and future to create a miniature city. Thus, it is based on numerous codes, combining modern universal technology and local culture, in a double coding that is characteristic. A typical building that is post-modern speaks at once on several levels to both high and low culture. It also recognizes the global situation where no single culture can speak for the whole world. Conferring with Vartola (2012), postmodernism concept is in three-fold. First, postmodernism is quoting Umberto Ecos the age of the lost innocence that is characterized by double-coding, ambiguity and irony and a transition to a post-industrial or late-capitalist social order in the Western culture in the late 20th century. However, its temporal borders are disputable. Next, postmodernism, is a thought orientation and acts as a headline for numerous critical

Two Weeks Notice Essay Example for Free

Two Weeks Notice Essay Two weeks notice Bullock plays Lucy Kelson, a committed left-wing attorney with an immaculate Ivy League background who fights the good fight against the heartless developers of lower Manhattan and the outer boroughs. Complications ensue when she finds herself working for one such figure, George Wade (Grant) in exchange for his preserving a Coney Island landmark near her childhood home. Wades not a bad guy, but hes frightfully dependent on Lucy for everything. When it seems possible she might at last get clear of him, she begins to have second thoughts about letting him go. The Movie Two Weeks Notice stares Saundra Bullock and Hugh Grant premiered in December of 2002. The movie follows a mix match relationship between a strong willed, save the community lawyer named Lucy Kelson, played by Sandra Bullock, and a high status business man, George Wade, played by Hugh Grant. The two in the beginning seem completely different but when Lucy goes to work for George, to keep him from knocking down the neighborhood community center, she realizes how needy he was, and how much she couldnt stand it. When Lucy gives George two weeks notice, George realizes that she is an asset to his company. After much arguing she finally gets out and then they both realize that theyve fallen in love with each other. Since they were too stubborn to admit it, it took a huge argument in the employee lounge to get them to let their guards down. Writer and first time Director, Marc Lawrences Two Weeks Notice is a charming, smart, and genuinely funny romantic comedy with terrific performances by Sandra Bullock and Hugh Grant. This a great movie. Inherent in romantic comedies is a degree of predictibility. Two Weeks Notice follows formula, but Lawrence orchestrates enough curves, character insight, and human resonance to make it more than just formula. He also has the great chemistry of Bullock and Grant this is their medium. Sandra Bullock plays Lucy Kelson, a Harvard educated activist lawyer, who is hired by George Wade (Hugh Grant)a handsome, charming, and seemingly shallow multi-millionaire develo per. George hires Lucy as chief legal counsel for Wade Corp. , for $250 K, because his brother Howard (David Haig), the true captain of Wade Corp. requested George hire an attorney who did not attend Bimbo U. Lucy swallows her idealism and poverty, because George also promises to protect her parents community center. Lucy is smart and not intentionally funny, and soon becomes Georges right and left arm he cant to anything without her consult. This only amplifies that Lucy has no life or rather any relationships of merit other than with George. Lucy gives George her Two Weeks Notice. Credit Lawrence and company, when George finally accepts Lucys resignation, it is crystal regarding the unspoken relationship of the two. Wink. Wink. Two Weeks never insults our intelligence, however, it makes us await for an hour and a half. Along with wit and humor Lawrence, Bullock, and Grant provide a a very human touch that resonates throughout the movie. In a very well done scene on the rooftop of Lucys parents New York apartment, Lucy shares with George that she never lived upto her mothers expectations. George says that is different from people having no expectations. This is where movie transforms beyond the opposites attract story. It makes sense of Lucys need to be perfect, and the man that George could be that he is well aware of. In its own light hearted way, Two Weeks looks at where you sell out, where do you become a whore (but in a nice way), and where do you take a stand. And taking a stand is never easy even in a romantic comedy, though it sometimes takes longer. Sandra Bullock and Hugh Grant are magic together. They are both smart and their characters are also. Grant as George is charming, witty, and playing someone who has honor and substance that are dimissed by all except Lucy (Bullock). Grant is masterful at hinting at a depth of character. Sandra Bullock is beautiful, smart, and funny as Lucy. She also stretches herself when Lucy drunkenly braggs about her sexual prowess bobcat pretsel thing. Bullock lends compassion and a whacky sensibilty to Lucy who scares men off by being too smart and too perfect, but still not good enough for her mother. Her Lucy only gets a clue when she hires her replacement (a good Alicia Witt) she is in love with George. The exchanges between Grant and Bullock are so natural like conversation, spoken and unspoken. At one point in the movie, Lucy has a breakfast conversation with her Dad (a goofy and wise Robert Klein). She asks him What if people dont change? The point is they will or they dont. Kind of like loving someone is accepting them for who they are and for who they are not. Be open to surprises. Marc Lawrences Two Weeks Notice is an excellent surprise. He along with Bullock and Grant have made a classic romantic comedy and more. Hugh Grant plays George Wade, a property developer who hires Lucy Kelson (Sandra Bullock) as his Chief Counsel. Sick of calls in the middle of the night and appalled at being called away from a wedding just to help her boss decide what to wear for a particular occasion, Lucy gives George two weeks notice. ‘Two Weeks Notice is little more than a predictable romantic comedy and it is only a matter of time before George and Lucy realise that they have fallen for each other. How the film turns out is obvious, but this will not spoil your enjoyment of it. Sandra Bullock fails to convince as a successful lawyer and businesswoman but she is able to convey a vulnerability which makes the audience warm to her. Like her character in ‘While You Were Sleeping, Lucy is a lonely individual. When she is at home she comfort eats Chinese food, always ordering just for one. There are also no surprises with Hugh Grants character as he is much the same as any of his other romantic roles i. e. very likeable and charming. The film succeeds purely because of the actors likeability and the on-screen chemistry between Hugh Grant and Sandra Bullock who are both gifted comedic actors. There are also enough good lines and funny situations to keep you chuckling throughout

Contributions of Functionalist Approaches to Translation

Contributions of Functionalist Approaches to Translation INTRODUCTION The 1980s saw the birth of a number of approaches to Translation Studies (TS henceforth) collectively termed functionalist, which brought about a paradigm shift in the system. This essay examines the strengths and weaknesses as well as the contributions of these functionalist approaches to the field of TS. Structurally, the essay starts with a brief historical overview of the approaches to translation before the advent of functionalist approaches. Then it discusses the major functionalist approaches, highlighting their major postulations and the criticisms against them, which will then be followed by a general summary of the various contributions of the various strands of functionalism. TRANSLATION STUDIES BEFORE FUNCTIONALISM Over the years, scholars have approached the discipline of Translation Studies from various angles largely depending on the dominant philosophy of the time and/or underlying conceptions of the nature of translation and how the translated text will be used (Schaeffner 2001: c5). However, one dilemma that has prevailed over the centuries is the decision on the best method of translating a text. This dilemma of the best method of translating is an age-old one. Jerome (395/2004: 24) expresses this dilemma thus: It is difficult, when following the lines of another, not to overshoot somewhere and arduous, when something is well put in another language, to preserve this same beauty in translationif I translate word by word, it sounds absurd; it out of necessity I alter something in the order or diction, I will seem to have abandoned the task of a translator. However, Jerome and indeed many other translator of his time end up not translating word by word. He quotes Cicero as observing that in his translation of Platos Protagoras and Xenophones Oeconomicus, that he kept their meanings but with their forms their figures, so to speak in words adapted to our idiom (395/2004: 23). He adds that except for the case of Sacred Scriptures, where the very order of the words is a mystery I render not word for word, but sense for sense (395/2004: 25) so as not to sound absurd in the target language. These scholars, including others like Nicolas Perrot DAblancourt (1640/2004), Martin Luther (1530) and John Dryden (1680/2004), may not be seen as translations scholars per se since they all had their respective vocations and translation was what they did in the passing. However, their views and comments formed the bedrock on which the field of translation studies was to be built. Linguistic-based approaches The argument over word by word or sense for sense translation prevailed over the centuries up till the 20th century when Jakobson (1959/2004) introduced the term equivalence in the literature and Nida (1964/2004) expands it by distinguishing between formal and dynamic equivalence. While formal equivalence aims at matching the message in the receptor language as closely as possible to the different elements in the source language, including the form and content, dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression, and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture (Nida 1964/2004: 156). According to Nida, the purposes of the translator to a large extent determine whether the translator should aim at formal equivalence or dynamic equivalence. One observes that these scholars are concerned with the correspondence between the target language and the source language and these approaches were thus collectively called linguistic approaches to translation. According to Saldanha (2009: 148), the term linguistic approaches to translation studies is used to refer to theoretical models that represent translation and/ or interpreting as a (primarily) linguistic process and are therefore informed mainly by linguistic theory. Translation studies was subsumed under applied linguistics and thus studied with methods developed in linguistics (Schaeffner 2001: 6). Other scholars that contributed to research in this area are Catford (1965) and House (1977/1981). Translation was seen as a transfer of information from one language to another, as an activity that affects just the two languages involved. Thus scholars were concerned with prescribing methods of translating from one language to the other in order to reproduce in the target langua ge a message that is equivalent to that of the source text. One such prescription was Vinay and Dabelnets (1958/2994) seven methods or procedures for translation: borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation, equivalence and adaptation. The first three they call direct translations as they involve transposing the source language message element by element, while the last four they call oblique because they involve an upsetting of the syntactic order of the source language. One major shortcoming of linguistic approaches is that they do not take cognisance of the contribution of the context in which an expression is used to the understanding of the whole message or text. Schaeffner (2001: 8 9) observes that Studies conducted within a linguistic-based approach to translation concentrated on the systematic relations between units of the language systems, but often abstracted from aspects of their contextual use. A chosen TL-form may well be correct according to the rules of the language system, but this does not necessarily mean that the text as a whole appropriately fulfils its communicative function in the TL situation and culture. Working on the translation of the Bible, Nidas distinction between formal and dynamic equivalence introduced aspects of sociolinguistics and culture into translation studies. He says that any discussion of equivalence, whether formal or dynamic, must consider types of relatedness determined by the linguistic and cultural distance between the codes used to convey the message (1964/2004: 157). He declares that a natural translation or dynamic equivalence involves two principal areas of adaptation, namely, grammar and lexicon (2004: 163). However, his theory has been criticised for being restricted in application and scope as it appears to be meant mainly for Bible translations and to focus on just lexical and syntactic correspondence. A few years later, Koller (1979: 215f) proposes five categorisation of the concept of equivalence namely: textralinguistic facts/state of affairs (denotative equivalence); form of verbalisation, including connotations, style and (connotative equivalence); text norms and language norms (text-normative equivalence); TL-text audience (pragmatic equivalence); and specific aesthetic, formal , characteristic features of text (formal-aesthetic equivalence) (quoted in Schaeffner 2001: 9) This too receives a lot of criticisms which apparently inform its review by the author over the years. Pym (1997: 1) observes that four editions of Kollers book Einfà ¼hrung in die ÃÅ"bersetzungswissenschaft (Introduction to Translation Studies/Science) has been published as at 1995, with an article summarising the main points appearing in English in Target. Indeed the concept of equivalence was (and still is) highly controversial even to this day. Textlinguistic approaches In reaction to the apparent rather restricted linguistic scope of these approaches, some scholars then argue for a text-linguistic or pragmatic approach to translation, whereby the whole text is seen as the unit of meaning and translation, as against the lexicon and grammar which was the focus of linguistic approaches. Katharina Reisss (1971/2004) text-typology is seminal in this respect, being about the first to introduce into TS a consideration of the communicative purpose of translation (Munday 2008: 74). According to Reiss, the communicative function of a text in its source culture determines its function in the target culture and how it will be translated. She classifies text-type into informative (communicates content), expressive (communicates artistically organised content) and operative (communicates content with a persuasive character) (Reiss 1971/2004: 171). In her view, a text that is adjudged informative should be translated in such a way that the same content in the sou rce text is transferred into the target text; an expressive text should retain the artistic and creative features of the source text in the target text; while an operative source text should inform a target text with a similar or analogous effect on the target audience. In situations where a text exhibits features of more than one text-type, the translator should concern themselves with foregrounding the overriding text-type and back-grounding the rest if the need so arises. Reiss does a lot to stress the importance of text-variety or genre in translation studies. She observes that genre conventions are culture specific and the translator should consider the distinctions in genre conventions across culture so as not to endanger the functional equivalence of the TL text by naively adopting SL conventions (1971/2004: 173). Neubert (1985) and its sequel co-authored with Gregory Shreve (1992) have done a lot to emphasise the importance of genre analysis in translation studies. In the pr eface to Translation as Text, they observe the decline in influence of linguistics in translation studies and the movement towards interdisciplinarity: Translation studies has abandoned its single-minded concern with strictly linguistic issues. It has been invigorated by new ideas from other disciplines. Translation scholars no longer hesitate to adopt new ideas from information science, cognitive science, and psychology. (Neubert and Shreve 1992: vii) Scholars that favour this approach focus a lot on setting up prototypes of genres, or as Corbett (2009: 291) puts it, these scholars focused on the descriptions of highly predictable, ritual, transactional texts, many of which seem banal in nature like Swales (1990) on reprint requests and Eggins (1994) on recipes. Thus scholars tried to identify parallel texts across languages and cultures by doing a systematic comparison of genre exemplars in both the source culture and the target culture (Schaeffner 2001: 11). Schaeffner also notes elsewhere that [g[enre conventions are determined by culture and, thus, prone to constant change (2000: 222). This enables the translator to adapt the text to the conventions of the receptor or target culture. Thus scholars operating within a text-linguistic approach to translation believe that a translation goes beyond language to cultural considerations. FUNCTIONALIST APPROACHES The second half of the 20th century witnessed some paradigm shift in translation studies, especially with the publication in German of Katharina Reiss and Hans Vermeers Foundation for a General Theory of Translation and Justa Holz-Manttaris Translatorial Action: Theory and Method, both in 1984. These set the pace for what is later known as functionalist approaches to translation, approaches that see translation as a communicative action carried out by an expert in intercultural communication (the translator), playing the role of a text producer and aiming at some communicative purpose (Nord 2001: 151). Functionalist approaches generally believe that the function of a text in the target culture determines the method of translation. They are said to have developed in opposition to the equivalence paradigm of the linguistic-based approaches which see the source text as what determines the nature of the target text. Using the communication scheme of SOURCE-PATH-GOAL, they accentuate the importance of the target text as the goal of the translational process. One of the major proponents, Vermeer (1987: 29) declares that linguistics alone is not effective because translation itself is not merely nor primarily a linguistic process, and that linguistics has not yet formulated the right questions to tackle our problems (cited in Nord 1997: 10). Quite a good number of translation scholars subscribe to functionalism like Vermeer (1978, 1989, 1996; Reiss and Vermeer 1984, 1991; Nord 1997, 2005; Holz-Manttari 1984, 1993; Honig 1997; Honig and Kussmaul 1982, 1996; among many others. Following are some of the major strands of functionalism. Skopostheorie The most popular among the functionalist approaches, skopos theory was developed in Germany by Hans Vermeer in 1978 in dissatisfaction with the linguistic-based approaches to translation. He sees translation as an action governed by a skopos from Greek meaning purpose or aim. This purpose now determines how the translation is done. Vermeer argues that the source text is produced for a situation in the source culture which may not be the same in the target culture. It then follows that the translation should be produced to suit the purpose for which it is needed in the target culture: the source text is oriented towards, and is in any case bound to, the source culture. The target textis oriented towards the target culture, and it is this which ultimately defines its adequacy (Vermeer 1989/2004: 229). Reiss and Vermeer jointly published Translatorial Action: Theory and Method in 1984 to give what has been described as the general translation theory, sufficiently general, and sufficient ly complex, to cover a multitude of individual cases (Schaeffner 1998: 236). They see a text as an offer of information and translation as an offer of information existing in a particular language and culture to members of another culture in their language. They hold that the needs of the target text receivers determine the specification of the skopos and the selection made from information offered in the source text (Schaeffner 1998: 236). Thus translation goes beyond linguistic considerations to also encompass cultural issues. The question then arises: Who determines the skopos? According to Vermeer (1989/2004: 236), the skopos is defined by the commission and if necessary adjusted by the translator. Nord (1997:30) adds that the skopos is embedded in the translation brief, which means that the person initiating the translation invariably decides what the skopos is. She agrees with Vermeer that the skopos is often negotiated between the client and the translator. The skopos of a text in the source culture might be the same as the skopos of the translation in the target culture, but that is just one of the different purposes for which a text might be needed in a different culture as the purpose in the target culture might be different. Reiss and Vermeer (1984) call the situation where the source text function is the same as the target text function functional constancy, while for the other situation where both texts have different functions they say the text has undergone a change of function. Vermeer also gives two further rules: coherence rule and fidelity rule. Coherence rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent for the target audience to understand given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances while the fidelity rule focuses on the intertextual relationship between the source text and the target text (Schaeffner 1998: 236). The nature of this intertextual coherence between the source text and target is however determined by the skopos. The theory of translatorial action This theory, proposed by Holz-Manttari, draws a lot from action theory and communication theory. An action is generally seen as doing something intentionally, and communication basically means transferring information from one entity to another. Holz-Mantarris theory then sees translation as transferring information embedded in one culture to receivers in another culture, and the translator is the expert saddled with the responsibility of this information transfer. Using concepts from communication theory, Holz-Mantarri identifies the players in the translatorial process: the initiator, the person in need of the translation; the commissioner, the person that contacts the translator; the source text producer or author; the target text producer, the translator or translation agency; the target text user, teachers for example; and the target text recipient, for example students in a target users class. She does a lot to emphasise the role played by these participants in the translationa l process. The need for a translation arises in situations where there is information in a particular culture that members of another culture do not have access to as a result of the cultural differences among the communities, or as Nord (1997: 17) puts it, situations where differences in verbal and non-verbal behaviour, expectations, knowledge and perspectives are such that there is not enough common ground for the sender and receiver to communicate effectively by themselves. Translation then is a process of intercultural communication aimed at producing a text capable of functioning appropriately in specific situations and contexts of use (Schaeffner 1998: 3). And since the focus is on producing functionally adequate texts, the target text should then conform to the genre conventions of the target culture. This makes the translator the expert in translatorial action, who determines what is suitable for the translatorial text operation and ensures the information is transmitted satisfactorily. One interesting aspect of this theory is the introduction of new terminologies into the literature. For example, instead of text, Holz-Mantarri prefers Botschaftstrà ¤ger, message carrier, a concept that broadens the traditional concept of text to include non-verbal aspects of communication thereby doing justice to the complexity of communicative processes (Martin de Leon 2008: 7). Other changes include Botschaftstrà ¤gerproduktion for text production and translatorisches Handeln for translate or translation. The principle of the necessary degree of precision This principle was developed by Honig and Kusmaul to provide a more detailed account of translation relevant decision-making processes as against the framework theory of translation (Honig 1997: 10). One of the outcomes of functionalist approaches is that the translator can give more information in the translation if the skopos requires that. An instance is making clear in a target text what is not so clear in the source text. However, it is not clear to what extent the translator can exercise this liberty. To this end, the principle stipulates that what is necessary depends on the function of the translation (Honig 1997: 10). Honig illustrates this in this rather long quote: the term public school implies such a large amount of culture-specific knowledge that it is impossible to render its meaning completely in a translation. Within a functionalist approach, however, the function of a word in its specific context determines to what degree the cultural meaning should be made explicit. In a sentence such as (my emphasis): (2a) In Parliament he fought for equality, but he sent his son to Eton. the translation will have to be different from translating the identical term Eton in the sentence: (3a) When his father died his mother could not afford to sent him to Eton any more. The following translations would be sufficiently detailed: (2b) Im Parlament kà ¤mpfte er fà ¼r Chancengleichheit, aber seinen eigenen Sohn schickte er auf eine der englischen Eliteschulen. (one of the English elite schools) (3b) Als sein Vater starb, konnte seine Mutter es sich nicht mehr leisten, ihn auf eine der teuren Privatschulen zu schicken (one of the expensive private schools). Of course, there is more factual knowledge implied in the terms Eton or public school than expressed in the translation, but the translation mentions everything that is important within the context of the sentence, in other words, the translation is semantically precise enough. (1997: 11) Here the translator does not aim at an exact or perfect target text, but a text that is sufficiently good enough for the situation. The translator provides as much (or less) information as the readers need as determined by the skopos. Christiane Nord Christiane Nord is one of the major proponents of functionalism. She agrees with Vermeer that the situation under which a target text is produced is different from that of the source text in terms of time, place (except for simultaneous interpreting), and sometimes medium. Thus the meaning of a text is found beyond the linguistic code, in the extratextual situation. In fact, she even stresses that meaning interpretation depends a lot on the personal experience of the text user: A text is made meaningful by its receiver for its receiver. Different receivers (or even the same receiver at different times) find different meanings in the same linguistic material offered by the text. We might even say that a text is as many texts as there are receivers of it. (2001: 152) Nord however has some reservations for the unrestricted freedom Reiss and Vermeer, and Holz-Manttari have given the translator to produce a target text of whatever form so long as it conforms to the skopos as directed by the client. To check this, she introduces the concept of loyalty which she defines as the responsibility translators have towards their partners: translators, in their role as mediators between two cultures, have a special responsibility with regard to their partners, i.e. the source text author, the client or commissioner of the translation, and the target text receivers, and towards themselves, precisely in those cases where there are differing views as to what a good translation is or should be. (Nord 2006: 33). Nord thus contends that the skopos is not the only determining factor in translation, that loyalty is necessary. Loyalty commits the translator bilaterally to the source text and target text situations: not to falsify the source text authors intentions (Nord 2005:32) and fulfilling the expectations of the target audience or explaining in a footnote or preface how they arrived at a particular meaning. Loyalty is different from fidelity or equivalence in that the latter refer to the linguistic or stylistic similarity between the source and the target texts, regardless of the communicative intentions involved while the former refers to an interpersonal relationship between the translator and their partners (2001: 185). Christiane Nord also elaborates on the possible range of functions a target text may have, different from that or those of the source text. She first distinguishes between documentary translation and instrumental translation. Documentary translation is such that aims at producing in the target language a kind of document of (certain aspects of) a communicative interaction in which a source-culture sender communicates with a source-culture audience via the source text under source-culture conditions (1997: 138); instrumental translation, on the other hand, aims at producing in the target language an instrument for a new communicative interaction between the source-culture sender and the target-culture audience. A documentary translation usually results in a target text with a meta-textual function or secondary level function according to House (1977). An instrumental translation may have the same range of functions as the source text, whereby it is said to be equifunctional; but if th ere are differences in the functions of both texts, the case is said to be heterofunctional. Nord also talks about homologous translation, also called creative transposition (Bassnet 2002: 24), where the target text represent the same degree of originality as the original in relation to the respective culture-specific corpora of texts. One other seminal input of Nords into functionalism is her call for an elaborate analysis of the source text before translation proper. Unlike Vermeer and Holz-Manttari who almost make the source text so invisible, Nord rather gives some attention to it since it is the provider of the offer of information that forms the basis for the offer of information formulated in the target text. She argues that the pre-translation analysis of the source text helps in deciding on whether the translation project is feasible in the first place, which source text units are relevant to a functional translation, and which strategy will best produce a target text that meets the requirements of the brief (Nord 1997: 62). Nord goes further to identify and categorise the kind of problems a translator might encounter pragmatic, convention-related, interlingual and text-specific and also steps to follow in the translational process. Schaeffner (2001) has done a critical review of Nords postulations (and indeed other functionalist approaches) and their applicability in practical translation. CONTROVERSIES SURROUNDING FUNCTIONALIST APPROACHES TO TRANSLATION Expectedly, functionalist approaches have received a lot of criticism, especially from scholars of the linguistic-based approaches, one of which is the definition of translation. Critics of skopos theory argue that not all target texts based on a source text can be called translations, that skopos theory makes no distinction between a real translation and adaptation or what Koller (1995) calls nontranslation. They argue that the supposed dethronement of the source text and focus on the target text (Newmark 1991; Schreitmuller 1994) subverts the intrinsic meaning of the translation. Pym (1997) argues in this light and supports Koller (1995) in upholding equivalence and calling on functionalists to distinguish between translation and nontranslation. However, functionalists view translation from a broader perspective, as any translational action where a source text is transferred into a target culture and language Nord 1997: 141). They see the linguistic-based definition as being restri ctive and in need of expansion. Linked to this is the supposed dethronement of the source text and emphasis on the skopos as the determining factor of how the translation is done. It is then argued that functionalism gives translators the freedom to produce any kind of target text and call it a translation. Pym (1991), for instance, accuses functionalists of producing mercenary experts able to fight under the flag of any purpose able to pay them (1991: 2). Nord responds to this by introducing the concept of loyalty, which restricts the liberty of the translator as they are now expected to be loyal to the source text author as well as other partners in the translational process. She also insists on an elaborate source text analysis before translation for a better understanding of both the source text and source culture which will then engender some high level coherence between the source text and the target text. One other controversy surrounding functionalism is the myriad of terminologies introduced and used differently, especially those by Holz-Manttarri. Indeed many of these criticisms still go on to this day. However, despite the various controversies surrounding the development and thrust of functionalist approaches, their contributions to the study of translation are remarkable. CONTRIBUTIONS OF FUNCTIONALIST APPROACHES TO TRANSALTION STUDIES One major contribution of this approach is that, according to Nord (1997: 29), it addresses the eternal dilemmas of free vs faithful translations, dynamic vs formal equivalence, good interpreters vs slavish translators, and so on. Thus a translation may be free of faithful or anything between these two extremes depending on its skopos or the purpose for which it is needed. The translator no longer has to always go back to the source text to solve translational problems, rather they base their translation on the function of the text in the target culture. Functionalist approaches liberate translation from theories that impose linguistic rules upon every decision (Pym 2010: 56). They recognise that the translation process involves more than languages involved and requires the consideration of these extra-textual and extra-linguistic factors for its actualisation. Thus they introduce the cultural dimension to translation studies and break the unnecessary recourse to the authority of the source text. While linguistics-based approaches may be said to be retrospective in that they look back at the source text as the model for the target text, functionalist approaches are seen as prospective in that they look forward to the function of the text in the target culture as the major determining factor for how the translation will be done. A retrospective translation operates a bottom-up process, works from source language elements and transfers the text sentence by sentence, or phrase by phrase. But a prospective translation operates a top-down process, starting on the pragmatic level by deciding on the intended function of the translation and asking for specific text-typological conventions, and for addressees background knowledge and their communicative needs ( Ouyang 2009: 104). Functionalist approaches are flexible and general enough to account for a wide range of translational situations. Talking about the theory of skopos theory for example, Schaeffner (2001: 15) observes that [t]his theory is presented as being sufficiently general to cover a multitude of individual cases, i.e. to be independent of individual languages, cultures, subject domains, text types and genres. Interestingly, the consideration of extra-textual factors in the translational process accentuates the multidisciplinary nature of translation studies. The introduction of text-typology and considerations of genre-conventions introduces elements of pragmatics, text-linguistics and culture studies into the discourse. So also is the belief that a text does not have a stable intrinsic meaning, but that meaning is affected by the subjective translator as well as by the cultural, historical, ideological and historical circumstances surrounding the production of the text (Schaeffner 2001: 12). Tied to the quality of flexibility mentioned above is functionalisms apparent accommodation of the shortcomings of some other translation theories. For example, Baker (2007) criticises the polysystem theory (Even-Zohar 1990) and Tourys (1995) theory of norms for encouraging analysts to focus on repeated, abstract, systematic behaviour and privileging strong patterns of socialization into that behaviour and for glossing over the numerous individual and group attempts at undermining dominant patterns and prevailing political and social dogma (Baker 2007: 152). She also expressed some dissatisfaction with Venutis dichotomies of foreignizing and domesticating strategies (Venuti 1993, 1995), also called minoritizing and majoritizing strategies (Venuti 1998), for, inter alia, reducing the intricate means by which a translator negotiates his or her way around various aspects of a text into a more-or-less straightforward choice of foreignizing versus domesticating strategy (Baker 2007: 152). However, these criticisms have been adequately taken care of by functionalist approaches whose methodology would not be seen as been that straitjacketed, with no room for flexibility. By their very nature, functionalist approaches bridge the gap between mere theorising and the practice of translation, as they suggest practical ways of going about translational problems. Before the advent of functionalist approaches, the translator is rarely noticed. Emphasis was on the source text and its supposed equivalent, the target text. No attention is paid to the identity or status of the translator in the translational process. On the one hand, the translator is seen as not being original, as merely performing a technical stunt (Honig 1985: 13) of transferring an original authors ideas into a different language. On the other hand, the translators identity is hidden when they produce texts that sound so fluent in the target culture as it they wer

Team Player Essay -- Short Story Track Running Essays

Team Player It is a cold, wet October morning in Slippery Rock, PA. The school bus carrying 50 sleeping high schoolers pulls into a gravel parking lot, joining a crowd of buses and vans already lining the edge of a vast grassy field. A never-ending white line is painted on the short-clipped grass marking a trail. It follows the outside of the expanse, along the parking lot, beside the road, up and down the hills and valleys, and through small patches of trees and brush at the far end of the field. Football goalposts crown the crest of a hill in the distance and white wooden posts guard the insides of the curves of the white line. As the bus driver turns off the motor, the girls begin to stir and sit upright in their seats. They wipe the beads of condensation from the inside of the windows and look outside, absorbing this beautiful scenery. A few begin to talk to the person sitting next to them. Others stretch and let out loud groans. This is the morning they have been preparin g for since the summer months: this morning, this very group of girls will try to prove themselves as the highest-ranking, fastest-running cross country team in western Pennsylvania. Soon, this calm field will be overtaken by swarms of coaches, runners, parents, and officials. As the morning moves on, more and more people gather around the tents that have popped up between areas of the course. After about two hours of preparation, the teams start gathering near the starting line for the first race. First to run are the boys’ junior varsity teams, followed forty minutes later by boys’ varsity. And then it’s my turn. Coach LeDonne gathers all of the girls on the JV team around him in front of our duck-y... ... that I gave as much to the team today as any other girl walking in those doors with me. And at that moment I realize that I contributed an equal amount to the victory as the first runner or the fourth runner, or the last runner on my team. Perhaps running is my secondary duty for the team. Maybe it is equally important that I helped Amy push up that hill in her race as it is important that I finished my own race with an average personal time in mine. Even though the team as a whole may value speed over every other quality, I realize that it isn’t necessarily the most important for every runner. The team could never run well without a steady support, a push from behind to run up the steepest hill. I was never meant to be the fastest runner on the team. But I could still have that same importance by being a proud, supportive member of the team.

Essay --

The question of euthanasia is one that has plagued the human sense of morale for centuries. With modern medical technology it becomes even more pressing. I will cover three aspects of Euthanasia including three principles for, three principles against, and my own conclusion as to why Euthanasia is morally justified. To clarify some of the terms involved; Euthanasia is derived from the Greek language: Euthos, meaning easy, and thanos, meaning dying. Voluntary Euthanasia is a medically assisted, peaceful death at the request of the patient. There is also active and passive euthanasia. Active being euthanasia at the request of a relative and passive euthanasia is withholding treatment at the request of the patient. There have been many arguments for euthanasia and most can be surmised into three principles. One is that individuals should have the right to make their own choices in personal issues such as death. Not respecting one’s wish for a quiet and peaceful death disrespect s one’s autonomy. It does so in such a way that to deny the right to make their own decision is like telling them they do not have the capacity to make a rational decision. If one does not have rational thought than one is like an animal with no concept of death. If one is thought to be like an animal then what harm is there in â€Å"putting them to sleep†? As people we constantly put down loved pets to end their suffering. Telling someone who only wishes for a peaceful death that they may not have such a mercy completely defies autonomy. Individuals’ right to make their own decision is not only an ethical right that all people have, but it is also protected by the United States Constitution as a part of the Right to Privacy. Death, it would seem to me, constitut... ...eat gift to ease one's pain and a great show of compassion to that person as well. Individuals have the right to choose. Denying a person their right to choose life or death, to me, is intrinsically wrong. As stated previously, death is a very personal issue and if life is no longer worth living than who are we to force unwanted life upon someone? We have a right to make private decisions and that includes the decision to die. There is nothing wrong with wanting to die peacefully to end suffering quicker than a natural death might have allowed. Euthanasia is clearly a mercy for those who suffer immensely through disease. Euthanasia should be an option for those that want it. It is obvious that many will still have objections and many will not make such a choice, but if they so choose, a quick and easy death awaits. I personally am not against euthanasia.

Adolf Hitler :: Biography

Adolf Hitler INTRODUCTION Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), German political and military leader and one of the 20th century's most powerful dictators. Hitler converted Germany into a fully militarized society and launched World War II in 1939 (see Federal Republic of Germany). He made anti-Semitism a keystone of his propaganda and policies and built the Nazi Party (see National Socialism) into a mass movement. He hoped to conquer the entire world, and for a time dominated most of Europe and much of North Africa. He instituted sterilization and euthanasia measures to enforce his idea of racial purity among German people and caused the slaughter of millions of Jews, Sinti and Roma (Gypsies), Slavic peoples, and many others, all of whom he considered inferior.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  II  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  EARLY YEARS Adolf Hitler was born in Braunau am Inn, Austria-Hungary, in 1889, the fourth child of Klara and Alois Hitler. Hitler’s father worked his way up in the Austrian customs service to a position of considerable status, and as a result Hitler had a comfortable childhood. Hitler began school in 1900, and his grades were above average. It was decided that he would attend Realschule, a secondary school that prepared students for further study and emphasized modern languages and technical subjects. However, Hitler and his father strongly differed about career plans. His father wanted him to enter the civil service; Hitler insisted on becoming an artist. As a result, Hitler did poorly in Realschule, having to repeat the first year and improving little thereafter. During this time, Hitler began to form his political views: a strong sense of German nationalism, the beginnings of anti-Semitism, and a distaste for the ruling family and political structure of Austria-Hungary. Like many German-speaking citizens of Austria-Hungary, Hitler considered himself first and foremost a German. The death of Hitler’s father in January 1903 changed the family. The survivors' income was adequate to support Hitler, his mother, and his sister, but the absence of a dominant father figure altered Hitler's position in the family. He spent much time playing and dreaming, did poorly in his studies, and left school entirely in 1905 after the equivalent of the ninth grade.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Time in Vienna Hitler had hoped to become an artist but was rejected as unqualified by the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts in October 1907. His mother died in 1908, and Hitler pretended to continue his studies in Vienna in order to receive an orphan’s pension. Adolf Hitler :: Biography Adolf Hitler INTRODUCTION Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), German political and military leader and one of the 20th century's most powerful dictators. Hitler converted Germany into a fully militarized society and launched World War II in 1939 (see Federal Republic of Germany). He made anti-Semitism a keystone of his propaganda and policies and built the Nazi Party (see National Socialism) into a mass movement. He hoped to conquer the entire world, and for a time dominated most of Europe and much of North Africa. He instituted sterilization and euthanasia measures to enforce his idea of racial purity among German people and caused the slaughter of millions of Jews, Sinti and Roma (Gypsies), Slavic peoples, and many others, all of whom he considered inferior.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  II  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  EARLY YEARS Adolf Hitler was born in Braunau am Inn, Austria-Hungary, in 1889, the fourth child of Klara and Alois Hitler. Hitler’s father worked his way up in the Austrian customs service to a position of considerable status, and as a result Hitler had a comfortable childhood. Hitler began school in 1900, and his grades were above average. It was decided that he would attend Realschule, a secondary school that prepared students for further study and emphasized modern languages and technical subjects. However, Hitler and his father strongly differed about career plans. His father wanted him to enter the civil service; Hitler insisted on becoming an artist. As a result, Hitler did poorly in Realschule, having to repeat the first year and improving little thereafter. During this time, Hitler began to form his political views: a strong sense of German nationalism, the beginnings of anti-Semitism, and a distaste for the ruling family and political structure of Austria-Hungary. Like many German-speaking citizens of Austria-Hungary, Hitler considered himself first and foremost a German. The death of Hitler’s father in January 1903 changed the family. The survivors' income was adequate to support Hitler, his mother, and his sister, but the absence of a dominant father figure altered Hitler's position in the family. He spent much time playing and dreaming, did poorly in his studies, and left school entirely in 1905 after the equivalent of the ninth grade.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Time in Vienna Hitler had hoped to become an artist but was rejected as unqualified by the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts in October 1907. His mother died in 1908, and Hitler pretended to continue his studies in Vienna in order to receive an orphan’s pension.

The History of Semantics

You are just going to encounter a piece of prose as you browse through the next few lines. Yes, prose is any written matter that is expressed in ordinary language as opposed to poetry that uses rhymes, meters, and imagery to convey ideas and emotions. Derived from the Latin word ‘prosa’, prose literally transforms into ‘straight-forward’. Hence, you would always find prose articles to be descriptive, narrative, or explanatory. Any spoken and writing language that is expressed in a sentence without any regular rhythmic pattern is termed as prose.Say, for instance, any article that you find in a magazine is a prose narrative. Further, the latest science fiction you read is a prose. In fact, prose can be a novel, essay, short story, drama, fable, fiction, folk tale, legend, biography, hagiography, literature, myth, saga, theme, or tragedy. Learn about some of these kinds of prose writing  in detail by navigating through the following lines. Different Types Of Prose Writing Short Story A prose narrative limited to a certain word limit is defined as a short story. It generally includes descriptions, dialogues, and commentaries.However, one characteristic that distinguishes a short story from the other kinds of prose is the concentration on a compact narrative with detailed character drawing. In general, short stories are believed to have existed decades back, even before the art of writing was known to man. The oldest recorded example of a short story is considered to be the Egyptian tale of â€Å"The Two Brothers† dated around 3200 BC. Novel Similar to a short story, a novel includes uncertain information since it centers on different types and possibilities.However, the length of a novel is highly undecided due to the numerous characters and situations included in it. In short, a novel is a comprehensive narrative on a large scale, in particular. Just like short stories, novels, too, have known to exist ever since literature came into existence. Amongst all the prose kinds, the novel dominates the industry, both in terms of quality and quantity. However, considering its quantity, its only rival is the magazine short story. Prose is a form of language which applies ordinary grammatical structure and natural flow of speech rather than rhythmic structure (as in traditional poetry).While there are critical debates on the construction of prose, its simplicity and loosely defined structure has led to its adoption for the majority of spoken dialogue, factual discourse as well as topical and fictional writing. It is commonly used, for example, in literature, newspapers, magazines, encyclopedias, broadcasting, film, history, philosophy, law and many other forms of communication. A novella is a written, fictional, prose narrative normally longer than a short story but shorter than a novel. The English word â€Å"novella† derives from the Italian word â€Å"novella†, feminine of â€Å"novello†, wh ich means â€Å"new†. 1] The novella is a common literary genre in several European languages. A novella generally features fewer conflicts than a novel, yet more complicated ones than a short story. The conflicts also have more time to develop than in short stories. They have endings that are located at the brink of change. Unlike novels, they are usually not divided into chapters, and are often intended to be read at a single sitting, as the short story, although white space is often used to divide the sections. They maintain, therefore, a single effect

Closing Case Study One

Closing Case Study One Information Systems in Enterprise (ISYS – 3001 – 3) Group B Participants-Matthew Gilliss, Arlene Gulley, Renee Hicks Kemara Mcintyre, and Andrew Ginn Walden University February 10, 2013 Abstract This will be a paper that has been a group effort with Matthew Gilliss (organizer and website account setup, homepage and student webpage template), Arlene Gulley (editor/poster), Renee Hicks (compiler), Kemara Mcintyre (summary), and Andrew Ginn (editor). The URL of our website is http://faboulousgroupb. weebly. com/.Our goal will be to respond to specifics questions in regards to two case studies; the first, being Ben & Jerry and secondly, Bigelow Teas. Ben & Jerry’s produce 190,000 pints of ice cream and frozen yogurt daily. It has 50,000 stores in the United States and 12 other countries. The company uses an Oracle database and BusinessObjects for tracking of business operations. They perform various transformation steps to organize long term go als for the business. It prepares strategies to stay line with technological advances.They have applied this technology to storing and manufacturing ice cream with energy efficiency warehouses. This new strategy enhances customer satisfaction, minimize inventory, and reduce manpower. (Haag & Cummings, 2009). Closing Case Study One Question #1 To redesign Ben & Jerry’s data warehouse the dimensions of information include frozen yogurt, ice cream, merchandise, locations, sales and shipping. This company should track all the different types of ice cream and yogurt flavors.They should also monitor these areas with the highest and lowest sales to make adjustments to save money. There should be information gathered on the merchandise being sold by Ben & Jerry. Ben & Jerry will monitor sales from stores in other locations ensuring the right merchandise is being shipped to the right location. The different dimensions are merchandise and locations. (Haag & Cummings, 2009). Question #2 When looking at Ben & Jerry’s ice cream stores, they would have to have a record of the different types of ice cream and frozen yogurt they offer.Along with the different products they would have to be able to track individual sales, the dates of those sales, and the store locations where the sale was made. When looking at primary keys you can see that the store number, order number and truck number could be primary keys. When looking for foreign keys to connect with the primary keys, you can see that store numbers, truck numbers, and order numbers can all be seen to be foreign keys. These are important because they would allow for Ben & Jerry’s to locate the exact order files of what they shipped, who drove it and where it went.Also then they could take the primary keys even farther and connect directly to the store and get other feedback that is directly correlated with the store. (Haag & Cummings, 2009). Question #3 Because of their familiarity of Microsoft Excel, it was easier to learn Business Objects and they were more inclined to learn the new way of using the Business Objects. They were able to substitute different functions on the Business Objects with Microsoft Excel, which created a more familiarity to them and they were able to be more comfortable with the task.Because of the area of their job, they were required to use spreadsheets, rather than using word processing software. (Haag & Cummings, 2009). Question #4 Bigelow Teas could continue to use Business Objects and they cooperate with each other so they can better understand its in-house and outside strengths and weaknesses. Bigelow Teas should make sure that their suppliers and resellers are part of the information partnership. This would allow the suppliers and resellers to be in contact with each other and to make the necessary adjustments or changes that are required. Haag & Cummings, 2009). According to (Haag & Cummings, 2009), â€Å"business intelligence is collective infor mation –about customers, your competitors, your partners, your competitive environments, and your own internal operations—that gives you the ability to make effective, important, and often strategic business decisions. † (p. 87). Bigelow Teas’ would not want their suppliers or resellers to know about their strategic business decisions. (Haag & Cummings, 2009).There might be a person who is a supplier or reseller who might take this information and use it for themselves and/or sell the information for a profit. The suppliers and resellers should only have information that will help Bigelow Teas in regards to implementing cost reduction, and be helpful with their resources. Question #5 Neil Hastie’s belief that most organizations decision making is a lot of trial by error. In a sense that could be true, but good decision making comes from the top and makes it way down.Let’s not lose sight on what decision making really is; finding a logical cho ice of decisions from available options. A CEO or even management of any kind of organization would have to be good at decision making. If you were to turn Neil’s statement about decision making into a positive one, then one would agree that an organization or whoever is running the organization would need to keep an open-mind. Keeping an open-mind would include training, presenting timely information and everyone’s wide assortment of data-mining tools. Haag & Cummings, 2009). Conclusion This assignment was both a learning experience and growing experience. As a group we were able to come together and tackle our case study and the creation of our group webpage. We were able to look at the information about the two companies and use the knowledge that we have acquired with the class discussions and assignments and come up with responses to each question. We were able to: determine what tables and files that Ben & Jerry’s should use and what primary and foreign ke ys they should use.With Bigelow Teas we took a look at personal productivity software tools and how best they could open up business intelligence with buyers and suppliers. Also we were able to take a general statement made and turn it into one that could be used in the everyday business world. Overall, this experience allowed the members of the group to get closer looks into different industries and allowed the group members to use the information that we have acquired so far in our studies. Reference Haag, S. , & Cummings, M. (2009). Information Systems Essentials. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

Which Has Posed the Greatest Problem for Singaporean

In a multi-ethnic and multi-religious society like Singapore, there is a need to manage the racial and religious sensitivities and promote tolerance and harmony. In addition, there is also the need to build national identity by instilling a sense of belonging. Therefore, there is a need to identify the most important problem out of the three and then solve it. The first problem is managing the perceptions of different racial groups. There is a need to manage this problem as preconceived notions of biased treatment by the government against any racial group could lead to the outbreak of violence among the different communities.For example, in 1964, Singapore experienced race riots which resulted in 36 dead and 590 injured. Singapore was in Malaysia then, and the UMNO felt threatened when the PAP participated in the 1964 Federal elections. The UMNO then led an anti-PAP campaign in the medium using the Utusan Melayu, claiming that PAP’s rule disadvantaged the Malays and that Mala y Singaporeans remained poor under PAP’s rule. They also claimed that PAP was uprooting Malay families in resettlement projects. Some UMNO extremists even came to Singapore and made fiery speeches that angered many Singaporean Malays.In July 1964, during the celebration of Prophet Muhammad’s birthday, a clash between a Chinese policeman and a group of Malay participants turned into a full-blown race riot over the next few days. This shows how the perceptions of unequal treatment towards the different races can cause suspicions, distrust and even hostility among Singaporeans, even if these perceptions are not based on facts. Therefore, this problem must be managed to prevent any outbreak of violence among citizens. The second problem is managing the perceptions of different religious groups.There is a need to do this as differences in religious beliefs and practices are issues that can create tension among people in Singapore, especially if it has been perceived that th e concerns of a certain religious community have not been considered. This is shown in the Maria Hertogh riot during 1950. Maria Hertogh, born to Dutch-Eurasian parents was adopted during the war by an Indonesian Muslim woman, Aminah, as her parents were interned by the Japanese. After the war, the Hertoghs launched a legal battle for the custody of their daughter. The custody battle attracted intense media attention worldwide.The judge ordered that Maria be placed temporarily in a Catholic convent while the trail was taking place. Photographs in newspaper of Maria, who was raised a Muslim, in a Catholic convent before a statue of Virgin Mary affected religious sensitivities and angered the Muslim Community as they felt that their religion was not respected at all. The British courts gave custody of Maria to her biological mother. Upon hearing the judgement, huge crowds outside the court rioted, convinced that the colonial laws, the courts and the legal system was prejudiced against the Muslims.The riots showed that if issues with religious implications are not handled in a sensitive manner, hostility and distrust could occur among people. The last problem is managing the threats from external forces. This also needs to be managed because transnational terrorist groups tend to exploit religious or race issues in order to achieve their political aims, suspicion and tension may arise among people in multi-ethnic societies like Singapore. For an example, the Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) is a militant group which has been active in the Southeast Asia. Its aim is to set up an Islamic state in Asia.Some of its activities include fund-raising and purchasing materials for making bombs. From 2001-2002, 34 JI members were arrested under the Internal Security Act for their involvement in terrorist-related activities. Targets in Singapore included the US embassy and some government buildings. Following the arrests, there was some mixed reactions from Singaporeans who were prepar ed to do harm in the various ethnic communities. Shocked that there were Singaporeans who were prepared to do harm to innocent civilians, some members of the public expressed distrust towards members of certain communities.This shows that managing external threats poses a significant challenge, as it has potential to divide people along racial and religious lines. All in all, I feel that the problem that has posed the greatest threat for Singapore in ensuring social harmony is the threat of transnational terrorism. As it can cause distrust between both religions and races while the other two can only either cause distrust among religions or races. In addition, if they manage to overcome the threat from external forces, citizens will be able to trust each other and violence and distrust will not breakout.

Ethical Decision Making

Ethics-PHI 220 03/16/2012 Ethical Decision Making Paper Case Study: From Santa Clara University There are two types of surrogacy. One type involves a surrogate mother who uses her own egg and carries the baby for someone else. The other type is a â€Å"gestational surrogacy† in which the mother has no genetic tie to the child she carries. In the case presented, a gestational surrogate is used. A woman, after a bout with uterine cancer had a hysterectomy (surgical removal of the uterus). Before, its removal, however, she had several eggs removed for possible fertilization in the future.Now married, the woman wishes to have a child with her husband. Obviously she cannot bear the child herself, so the couple utilizes a company to find a surrogate mother for them. The husband's sperm is used to fertilize one of the wife's eggs, and is implanted in the surrogate mother. The couple pays all of the woman's pregnancy-related expenses and an extra $18,000 as compensation for her surrog acy, and after all expenses are taken into account the couple pays the woman approximately $31,000 and the agency approximately $5,000.Though the surrogate passed stringent mental testing to ensure she was competent to carry another couple's child, after carrying the pregnancy to term, the surrogate says that she has become too attached to â€Å"her† child to give it up to the couple. A legal battle ensues. Step 1: Gather Relevant Information The Surrogate is carrying a baby that has no genetic ties to her. The Surrogate was paid quiet well to do a service and decides not to follow through with the service.The surrogate now decides to keep the baby and the money because she has grown to close to the baby. Step 2: Type of ethical problem According to Markkula center for applied ethics, justice means giving each person what he or she deserves or, in more traditional terms, giving each person his or her due. Justice and fairness are closely related terms that are often today use d interchangeably. There have, however, also been more distinct understandings of the two terms.While justice usually has been used with reference to a standard of rightness, fairness often has been used with regard to an ability to judge without reference to one's feelings or interests; fairness has also been used to refer to the ability to make judgments that are not overly general but that are concrete and specific to a particular case. In any case, a notion of desert is crucial to both justice and fairness. (SCU)The most fundamental principle of justice—one that has been widely accepted since it was first defined by Aristotle more than two thousand years ago—is the principle that â€Å"equals should be treated equally and unequal’s unequally. † In its contemporary form, this principle is sometimes expressed as follows: â€Å"Individuals should be treated the same, unless they differ in ways that are relevant to the situation in which they are involve d. (SCU) By the surrogate keeping this baby, she is going against everything that was in the agreement.This baby has no attachment to the surrogate; it is the egg of the husband and wife who paid her to carry their child. In the United States it is illegal to pay a person for non-replenish able organs. The fear is that money will influence the poor to harm their bodies for the benefit of the rich. Is there a parallel between this case and this law? Can allowing surrogate mothers to be paid for their troubles allow poorer women to be oppressed? On their website, the AMA says â€Å"that surrogacy contracts [when the surrogate uses her own egg], while permissible, should grant the birth other the right to void the contract within a reasonable period of time after the birth of the child. If the contract is voided, custody of the child should be determined according to the child's best interests. † (SCU) However this is not the case with this couple, the couple used their own egg and implanted it into the surrogate so should the same rules apply? Step 3: Apply Ethical Theories and Approaches Ethical theory is divided into two main types or approaches in this case which are virtue and duty ethics.Virtue ethics begins by considering what makes a person (or his/her character or motives) morally good (Aristotle, Hume). Duty Ethics focuses on rules or acts and what makes them right (Mill, Kant, Rawls). (Ethical Theory) According to the both theories the surrogate should hand over the child to the biological parents. This surrogate has no real ties to the child and was paid for a service and is violating a contract by not providing the child she was paid to deliver. Step 4: Exploring Practical AlternativesWith this particular case there are not many alternatives. Option 1- being that the surrogate keeps the child and returns all the money she was paid to do the service and the money put out for her medical bills. The surrogate could also reimburse the couple for t heir time and heart ache. Option 2- The couple and the surrogate could go in front of a judge and have the judge decide what is best for the child and the people involved, and what the outcome shall be. Step 5: Complete the Action This is the most important step in the ethical decision making process.This is where the actions are carried out. After reviewing all the details and options for this case the most ethical thing to be done is for the surrogate mother to give the baby, who has no biological attachments to her back to the biological parents. The surrogate can keep the $18,000 she was paid for compensation for her time and expenses, plus the money put out for all her medical expenses. Works Cited â€Å"Justice and Fairness. † Santa Clara University. Web. 17 Mar. 2012. . â€Å"Ethical Theory. † Web. . Ethical Decision Making Ethical Decision Making End of Life Submitted by: Anthony Mcdew Ethical nursing care Nurses are faced with ethical decision making on a daily basis. This could be both stressful and challenging. The following case study I chose to walk through is: Mr. Clarke is a patient who has advanced AIDS with related pain syndromes and is also actively abusing drugs. The nurse is concerned about his abusing his pain medications and is not sure if she should give them to him as he leaves the hospital. It will be my assumption that this patient is nearing the end of their life. The value, be, do ethical decision-making model will provide the framework I need to assess this case study (Schaffer and Norlander). I also will be using ethical decision making tools to guide my decision making process. What should I value? The first step of the value, be, do ethical decision-making model answers the question what should I value? It is time that I look deep into the meaning of my life in regards to my professional nursing practice. What do I value in life? The meaning of life for me involves personal and professional respect for my patient and his physician in charge of his care. This involves respecting my patient and his situation. Also, trusting the prescribing Physicians education and training is something I value. Along with valuing respect; I value quality end of life care for my patient. Every individual deserves a peaceful death with minimal pain and suffering if possible. To obtain this, I also need to value my relationship with my patient. Developing a trusting relationship is important for him and also me when dealing with uncomfortable conversations that may have to take place. Finally, I think that I value my education and critical thinking skills. These skills are important to value because I will have to make a decision if I think my patient can handle taking his own pain medications on his own. My education and critical thinking skills will guide me to problem resolution that has the best outcome for the patient. Who should I be? Not only is it important to understand what values impact my actions and decisions; it is also important to make sure my actions reflect my values. The values I have make sure that I am an advocate for my patient’s comfort as well as their safety. They also help me be an active and compassionate listener as well as a teacher. If I am a trustworthy person; my patient will hopefully feel comfortable talking to me about his addiction. Finally, to ensure a quality end of life experience for my patient, I will stay educated on medication dosages, side effects, and other treatments for pain. By critically thinking, I should be able to educate my patient and help communicate to the Physician about the patients concerns regarding pain addiction and pain control. What should I do? By understanding what I value and who I am; I now should be able to fulfill my actions. First, I feel that I should take time to analyze the patients past medical history and medications that helped his pain. Second, I will review the pain medications with the Physicians to ensure I have a proper understanding of his or her plan. Then I will review what is needed to provide quality end of life care with good pain control to a dying AIDS patient. After I feel that I have a great understanding of the situation; it is time I listen and talk with my patient. Assure them that I am there as their advocate for safe and complete end of life care. This may require me to act as a counselor or bring in interdisciplinary team members to assist my patient. My number one goal is to provide safe end of life care; but as painless and comfortable as possible. Analyze response to case study It is always challenging to give patients medications knowing that they may become, or have become addicted. In my current practice we see many patients who go to pain clinics and have pain contracts to help with their addiction and pain management. The difference is, my patients are not dying. Thiroux’s universal ethical principles allow nurses to take time and review the ethical situation. In my case study, I personally feel the Mr. Clarke has the right to a peaceful death if possible. The problem is that the medications we are giving him may kill him first. Thiroux’s principles allows for individual freedom and valuing life. My patient should have the freedom he needs to decide if the pain if worse or the addiction. Depending on how long he has to live, the addiction may be the least of his problems. I feel that I need to value his life and quality of life. Also, I need to understand that death most likely is going to happen. (Blackboard). Thiroux’s universal ethical principles allow nurses to assess the client situation; as well as the caring and justice model (blackboard). This model enhances how nurses feel about ethical problems. Mr. Clarke’s situations force me as his primary nurse to understand how to be an advocate for him and his situation. It also reminds me to use my compassion and virtue when caring and talking with him about his pain addiction. Finally, I have learned that solving or being part of an ethical dilemma can be easier on a nurse by incorporating spirituality. I think that by assessing Mr. Clarke’s spirituality; I may be able to help him with his addiction or suffering he is facing. Isaiah 43:4-5 says that â€Å"Since you are precious and honored in my sight, and because I love you, I will give men in exchange for you and people in exchange for your life†. It goes on to say that we should not be afraid because God is with us and will unite us together. This bible verses supports my belief that God is there for us as nurses and that he had a purpose for us. God gave us the power to support all situations. The verses also leads me to believe that the purpose of life is to help others physically, emotionally, or spiritually with whatever gifts you may have. I truly believe that God gave me the guidance I need to make this ethical decision on how to help Mr. Clarke. I believe that with proper education and assessment of his pain protocol; Mr. Clarke deserves to have pain relief. This can be done by having his medications monitored. However, they should not be withheld. God does not want suffering and either do I. Quality guidelines Domains of end of life quality care. The domains of end of life quality care that apply to my case study include: pain and symptom control, achieving a sense of control, and possibly strengthen the relationship with loved ones. It is my goal to provide quality end of life care to Mr. Clarke. This includes symptom and pain management. By allowing him to have a sense of control with his pain medications; he is able to help determine is end of life experience. Finally, by assessing Mr. Clarke’s relationship with his family I will be able to see if they can help him. There help could be support, symptom monitoring, and medication management. They also may be able to help him with alternative measures at times including: guided imagery, music therapy, massage etc. Bill of last rights. Not only is it important to understand the domains of end of life quality care; it is also important to remember the bill of last rights. These rights are consistent reminders of the rights dying patients have or basic human rights. Mr. Clarke has a right to control, to be comfortable, and the right to hear the truth. These rights remind me as his caregiver that he is part of this process as well as his medical care team. Even though I feel we still should prescribe his medications; I also believe that he is entitled to know that he has become addicted and how to work through it. Seven Promises. Another tool to use when assessing Mr. Clarkes case study would be reviewing the Seven Promises. The one promise that stands out the most to me is â€Å"never be overwhelmed by symptoms† (blackboard). This includes never having to â€Å"endure overwhelming pain, shortness of breath, or other symptoms (blackboard). This promise reminds me as his care giver that his care team needs to consistently be assessing his pain protocol and symptom management. The other promise that I feel would be beneficial to remember when caring for Mr. Clarke is â€Å"make the best of everyday† (blackboard). This allows the care team to remember that Mr. Clarke is an individual and each day we need to make sure we are helping him. Not only is it important to offer medications for pain management; it is also important to offer alternatives. Each day as his nurse I can document what time of day his pain is worse, what stimulus increases and decreases pain. Every day, I can do my best to help him make the best of his day. Precepts of Palliative care. The last option I have encountered that I can to do assess my patient’s situation is to analyze the organization. By reviewing the Precepts of care, I will be able to make sure the organization is not lacking in any areas that may help Mr. Clarke. This tools will allow us to make sure the organization is respecting the patients decisions, giving comprehensive care, utilize resources of team members, address caregivers concerns, and analyzing the environment (blackboard). This can ensure that not only I am providing good ethical care to my patient, as well as the organization and medical care team. Actions/Response After analyzing and utilizing all of the tools available to me; I have decided that Mr. Clarke deserves to get his pain medication. He is actively dying and has the right to pain and symptom control. It is easier to monitor his addiction then his suffering. The Physician is prescribing only a certain quantity of medications at a time. This can help the care team to monitor his addiction. I believe that the situation would be different if the patient was not dying. I believe that with my strong understanding of my values; I will be able to allow my actions to be appropriate. This will help guide me through â€Å"what should I do†? Ethical decision making is never an easy process. By having the proper tools, it can help medical care team members make a decision. It is my job to educate, counsel, support, and advocate for Mr. Clarke. I would need to be concerned with his medication addiction if he started to overdose. The case study said he is only having trouble with addiction. However, his medication management still needs to be closely monitored for this scenario. Ethical situations can change depending on the situation. I hold strong to by choice that Mr. Clarke needs his pain medications. Reference Bethel College of Nursing Department (n. d. ). Bethel University NURS344 Blackboard Course modules 2010, St. Paul MN. Schaffer, M. , Norlander, L. (2009) Being present A Nurse’s resource for end of life communication. Indianapolis, IN: Sigma Theta Tau International. . Ethical Decision Making Ethics-PHI 220 03/16/2012 Ethical Decision Making Paper Case Study: From Santa Clara University There are two types of surrogacy. One type involves a surrogate mother who uses her own egg and carries the baby for someone else. The other type is a â€Å"gestational surrogacy† in which the mother has no genetic tie to the child she carries. In the case presented, a gestational surrogate is used. A woman, after a bout with uterine cancer had a hysterectomy (surgical removal of the uterus). Before, its removal, however, she had several eggs removed for possible fertilization in the future.Now married, the woman wishes to have a child with her husband. Obviously she cannot bear the child herself, so the couple utilizes a company to find a surrogate mother for them. The husband's sperm is used to fertilize one of the wife's eggs, and is implanted in the surrogate mother. The couple pays all of the woman's pregnancy-related expenses and an extra $18,000 as compensation for her surrog acy, and after all expenses are taken into account the couple pays the woman approximately $31,000 and the agency approximately $5,000.Though the surrogate passed stringent mental testing to ensure she was competent to carry another couple's child, after carrying the pregnancy to term, the surrogate says that she has become too attached to â€Å"her† child to give it up to the couple. A legal battle ensues. Step 1: Gather Relevant Information The Surrogate is carrying a baby that has no genetic ties to her. The Surrogate was paid quiet well to do a service and decides not to follow through with the service.The surrogate now decides to keep the baby and the money because she has grown to close to the baby. Step 2: Type of ethical problem According to Markkula center for applied ethics, justice means giving each person what he or she deserves or, in more traditional terms, giving each person his or her due. Justice and fairness are closely related terms that are often today use d interchangeably. There have, however, also been more distinct understandings of the two terms.While justice usually has been used with reference to a standard of rightness, fairness often has been used with regard to an ability to judge without reference to one's feelings or interests; fairness has also been used to refer to the ability to make judgments that are not overly general but that are concrete and specific to a particular case. In any case, a notion of desert is crucial to both justice and fairness. (SCU)The most fundamental principle of justice—one that has been widely accepted since it was first defined by Aristotle more than two thousand years ago—is the principle that â€Å"equals should be treated equally and unequal’s unequally. † In its contemporary form, this principle is sometimes expressed as follows: â€Å"Individuals should be treated the same, unless they differ in ways that are relevant to the situation in which they are involve d. (SCU) By the surrogate keeping this baby, she is going against everything that was in the agreement.This baby has no attachment to the surrogate; it is the egg of the husband and wife who paid her to carry their child. In the United States it is illegal to pay a person for non-replenish able organs. The fear is that money will influence the poor to harm their bodies for the benefit of the rich. Is there a parallel between this case and this law? Can allowing surrogate mothers to be paid for their troubles allow poorer women to be oppressed? On their website, the AMA says â€Å"that surrogacy contracts [when the surrogate uses her own egg], while permissible, should grant the birth other the right to void the contract within a reasonable period of time after the birth of the child. If the contract is voided, custody of the child should be determined according to the child's best interests. † (SCU) However this is not the case with this couple, the couple used their own egg and implanted it into the surrogate so should the same rules apply? Step 3: Apply Ethical Theories and Approaches Ethical theory is divided into two main types or approaches in this case which are virtue and duty ethics.Virtue ethics begins by considering what makes a person (or his/her character or motives) morally good (Aristotle, Hume). Duty Ethics focuses on rules or acts and what makes them right (Mill, Kant, Rawls). (Ethical Theory) According to the both theories the surrogate should hand over the child to the biological parents. This surrogate has no real ties to the child and was paid for a service and is violating a contract by not providing the child she was paid to deliver. Step 4: Exploring Practical AlternativesWith this particular case there are not many alternatives. Option 1- being that the surrogate keeps the child and returns all the money she was paid to do the service and the money put out for her medical bills. The surrogate could also reimburse the couple for t heir time and heart ache. Option 2- The couple and the surrogate could go in front of a judge and have the judge decide what is best for the child and the people involved, and what the outcome shall be. Step 5: Complete the Action This is the most important step in the ethical decision making process.This is where the actions are carried out. After reviewing all the details and options for this case the most ethical thing to be done is for the surrogate mother to give the baby, who has no biological attachments to her back to the biological parents. The surrogate can keep the $18,000 she was paid for compensation for her time and expenses, plus the money put out for all her medical expenses. Works Cited â€Å"Justice and Fairness. † Santa Clara University. Web. 17 Mar. 2012. . â€Å"Ethical Theory. † Web. .